liiiiwi 


Ij  I  B  Pt  -A.  I^  "^2" 

theological   f  cmiuavy, 


PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


BL    240    .D5    1844 

Dick,  Thomas,  1774-1857. 

The  Christian  philosopher 


Explanation  of  Figures  on  page  15. 


THE 


CHRISTIAN  philosopher; 


THE  CONNEXION  OF 


SCIENCE  AND  PHILOSOPHY 


RELIGION 


ILLUSTRATED    WITH    ENGRAVINGS. 


BY  THOMAS  DICK,  LL.  D. 

AUTHOR  OP  THE    "  PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION,"    "  PHILOSOPHY  OF  A   FUTrRE  STATE, 

"  DIFf  USION  OF  KNOWLEDGE,"    "  MORAL  IMPROVEMENT  OF  MANKIND," 

"  CELESTIAL  SCENERY,"  "  SIDEREAL  HEAVENS,"  ETC. 


FROM  THE  EIGHTH  LONDON  EDITION, 

REVISED,  CORRECTED,   AND  GREATLY  ENLARGED. 


PHILADELPHIA : 
PUBLISHED  BY  EDWARD  C.  BIDDLE, 

No.  6  South  Fifth  Street. 
STEREOTYPED  BY  C  W.  MURRAY  AND  CO. 


1844. 


PRINTED    BV   T.    K.    &    P.    G.    COLLINS,    PHILA. 


TO 

SIR  DAVID  BREWSTER,  LL.  D., 

FELLOW  OF  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON  ; 

SECRETARY  TO  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  EDINBURGH  ;   HONORARY  MEMBER    OP 

THE  ROYAL  IRISH  ACADEMY  ;    MEMBER  OF  THE  ROYAL 

SWEDISH  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  ;    HONORARY  ASSOCIATE  OF  THE 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  AT  LYONS,  ETC.  : 

THIS  V-OLUME, 

INTENDED    TO  ILLUSTRATE   THE 

CONNEXION  OF  SCIENCE  AND  PHILOSOPHY  WITH  RELIGION, 

AND  WITH 

THE  MORAL  IMPROVEMENT  OF  MANKIND, 

IS  INSCRIBED, 

AS  A  TESTIMONY  OF  RESPECT 

FOR  THE  ACQ.UISITIONS  WHICH  SCIENCE  HAS  DERIVED 

FROM  HIS  PHILOSOPHICAL  DISCOVERIES 

AND  LITERARY  LABOURS, 

BY  HIS  MOST  OBEDIENT  AND  HUMBLE  SERVANT, 

THE  AUTHOR, 


PREFACE  TO  EIGHTH  EDITION. 


liV  consequence  of  the  progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences, 
since  the  second  edition  of  the  following  work  "was  published 
— it  has  been  deemed  expedient  to  make  a  thorough  revision 
of  the  whole,  so  as  to  embrace  the  latest  improvements  and 
discoveries  in  the  different  departments  to  which  its  diversified 
subjects  refer.  The  author  has  accordingly  carefully  revised 
every  portion  of  the  volume,  and  made  very  considerable 
additions  to  its  several  departments.  The  article  Geologi 
has  been  almost  entirely  rewritten,  and  enlarged  to  more 
than  double  its  former  extent.  The  article  Geography  has 
been  enlarged  by  an  addition  of  more  than  twenty  pages. 
The  articles  Astronomy,  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry, 
Physiology,  History,  Printing,  Mariner's  Compass, 
Telescope,  Air  Balloons,  Steam  Navigation,  &c.,  have 
likewise  been  considerably  enlarged.  To  the  former  subjects 
are  now  added  comprehensive  sketches  of  the  following 
recently  discovered  departments  of  science  and  art — The  Da- 
guerreotype, Electrotype,  Electro-^Iagnetism,  Elec- 
tric Telegraphs,  Railroads,  &.c.,  besides  a  variety  of 
paragraphs  inserted  in  numerous  places  throughout  the  body 
of  the  work.  Between  twenty  and  thirty  additional  engrav- 
ings have  been  inserted,  and  to  the  whole  is  now  added  a 
copious  Index.  These  additions  amount  to  nearly  one 
hundred  and  thirty  pages. 

1*  V 


Vi  PREFACE   TO  EIGHTH  EDITION. 

This  work  has  had  an  extensive  sale,  not  only  in  Great 
Britain,  but  also  in  the  United  States  of  America,  where 
numerous  stereotype  editions  have  been  printed— in  the  East 
and  West  Indies,  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  there- 
fore hoped  that  the  improvements  and  additions  which  have 
b?en  now  made  will  render  it  still  more  acceptable  to  the 
public. 

Broughty  Ferry,  near  Dundee, 
20th  October,  1842 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 


The  following  pages  were  written  under  the  impression  that 
the  visible  manifestation  of  the  attributes  of  the  Deity  are  too 
frequently  overlooked  by  Christians  in  their  views  of  the  great 
objects  of  religion,  and  in  the  worship  they  offer  to  the  Father  of 
their  spirits;  and  are  intended  to  show,  that  the  teachers  of  reli-' 
gion,  in  imparting  instruction  either  to  the  old  or  to  the  young, 
ought  to  embrace  a  wider  range  of  illustration,  in  reference  to 
Divine  subjects,  than  that  to  which  they  are  usually  confined. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  the  discussions  contained  in  this 
work  the  author  has  pursued  his  own  train  of  thought;  and  in  so 
doing,  he  trusts  that  he  has  been  enabled  to  render  some  of  his 
illustrations  more  interesting  to  the  young  and  untutored  mind, 
than  if  he  had  adhered  rigidly  to  the  sentiments  of  others,  and  to 
the  technical  language  of  science.  The  sketches  of  the  different 
sciences  are  not  mere  extracts  or  compilations,  but  are,  for  the 
most  part,  original  composition — in  which  it  has  been  his  mala 
object  to  embody  as  many  facts  as  his  limits  would  permit — in 
order  to  excite  the  inquiring  mind  to  further  investigations  into 
the  different  departments  of  physical  science. 

It  is  presumed,  that  no  Christian  reader  will  for  once  imagine, 
that  the  views  illustrated  in  this  Avork  are  intended  to  be  substituted 
in  place  of  the  peculiar  revelations  of  the  Bible.  The  object  of 
the  volume  is  to  illustfate  the  harmony  which  subsists  between 
the  system  of  nature  and  the  system  of  revelation;  and  to  show 
that  the  manifestations  of  God,  in  the  material  universe,  ought  to 
be  blended  with  our  views  of  the  facts  and  doctrines  recorded  in 
the  volume  of  inspiration. 

It  is  taken  for  granted,  throughout  the  whole  range  of  the  fol- 
lowing illustrations,  that  the  Scriptures  contain  a  revelation  from 
Heaven ;  and  under  a  firm  belief  of  this  important  truth,  the  author 
has  embellished  his  work  with  frequent  quotations  from  the  ener- 
getic and  sublime  language  of  this  sacred  book.  It  would,  there- 
fore, be  unfair  in  any  crhic,  who  entertains  doubts  on  this  point, 

vii 


Vlll  PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION. 

to  find  fault  with  sucli  quotations,  or  with  the  allusions  to  Bible 
phraseology  which  occur,  unless  they  can  be  shown  to  be  intro- 
duced without  judgement  or  discrimination. 

The  author  has  carefully  revised  every  portion  of  the  present 
edition,  and  introduced  a  variety  of  corrections  and  modifications. 
He  has  hkewise  introduced  additional  matter,  to  the  extent  of 
between  forty  and  fifty  pages,  and  also  several  illustrative  engrav- 
ings. In  its  present  form,  the  author  trusts  that,  independently 
of  the  moral  reflections  it  contains,  it  will  be  found  to  comprise 
popular  descriptions  of  a  greater  number  of  scientific  facts,  than 
is  to  be  found  in  any  other  volume  of  the  same  size. 

Various  topics,  originally  intended  to  be  illustrated,  have  been 
unavoidably  omitted.  Some  of  these  are  stated  in  the  last  para- 
graph of  Chapter  IV — the  illustration  of  which,  in  combination 
with  other  kindred  topics,  would  fill  a  volume  of  the  same  size  as 
the  present.  This  subject  (for  which  the  author  has  abundance 
of  materials)  will  be  prosecuted  in  another  volume,  under  the  title 
of"  The  Philosophy  of  Religion,"  and  will  comprise,  among 
many  other  subjects  of  discussion,  illustrations  of  the  moral  rela- 
tion of  intelligent  beings  to  their  Creator,  and  to  one  another — the 
physical  and  rational  grounds  of  those  moral  laws  which  the 
Deity  has  promulgated — the  views  which  science  affords  of  the 
incessant  energies  of  creating  power,  and  of  the  grand  and  multi- 
farious objects  over  which  Divine  Providence  presides — the  rela- 
tion of  science  to  a  future  state,  and  of  the  aids  which  the 
discoveries  of  science  afford,  for  enabling  us  to  form  a  conception 
of  the  perpetual  improvement  of  the  celestial  inhabitants  in 
knowledge  and  felicity.  These  subjects  will  be  illustrated  by  a 
variety  of  interesting  details  of  facts,  in  relation  to  the  system  of 
nature,  the  history  of  nations,  and  the  moral  state  of  Christian 
and  general  society.  , 

Perth,  December,  1824. 


CONTENTS. 


Inrtroduction,  .  .  .  .  .  .        Page  17 

Necessity  of  Revelation,  17.  Folly  of  discarding  the  Science  of  Nature 
from  Religion,  18.  Beneficial  effects  which  flow  from  the  Study  of  the 
Works  of  God,  23. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OF  THE  NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  DEITY. 

Sect.  I.  On  the  Relation  of  the  Natural  Attributes  of  the  Deity  to 
Religion,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .24 

The  Christian  Religion  founded  on  the  Natural  Attributes  of  God,  25. 
His  Power  as  interesting  a  subject  as  his  Mercy,  26 — Illustrated  in  two 
instances,  27.  Evils  which  arise  from  imperfect  conceptions  of  Divine 
Power,  27.  Defects  in  Religious  Instructions  on  this  subject,  29.  Sources 
of  Illustration,  31. 

Sect.  II.  Illustrations  of  the  Omnipotence  of  the  Deity,  .  32 

The  material  world  exhibits  a  more  striking  display  of  this  Perfection 
than  the  supernatural  facts  recorded  in  Scripture,  32.  Immense  quantity 
of  matter  in  the  universe,  33.  Mode  of  acquiring  the  most  comprehensive 
conception  of  the  bulk  of  the  Earth,  34 — its  variety  of  scenery,  35 — its 
mass  of  solid  matter,  35.  Magnitude  of  the  bodies  which  compose  the 
Solar  System,  36.  Magnitude  and  number  of  the  Stars,  37.  Procedure 
•of  the  mind  in  acquiring  the  most  impressive  conceptions  of  such  august 
objects,  39. — Reflections,  40.  Rapid  motions  of  the  Celestial  Bodies^il. 
How  we  acquire  the  ideas  of  relative  velocities,  41 — weight  of  the  F<iith, 
42 — immense  physical  forces — -grandeur  of  the  motion  of  Saturn,  4  i— im- 
mense number  of  bodies  impelled  through  the  heavens,  43 — Reflections, 
44.  Immense  spaces  which  surround  the  Heavenly  Bodies,  44 — Reflec- 
tions, 45.  Popular  illustration  of  the  Motions  of  the  Earth  and  Heavens, 
46.  Extract  from  Dr.  Ridgley,  with  remarks,  48.  Universe  intended  to 
adumbrate  the  Attributes  of  God,  and  to  make  a  sublime  impression  on 
created  beings,  50.  Similar  trains  of  thought  suggested  in  the  Scriptures, 
51.  Moral  effects  of  such  contemplations,  52.  Humility,  52.  Folly  of 
pride — low  rank  of  man  in  the  scale  of  being,  53.  Reverence  and  Ve?iera- 
tion,  55.  Reason  why  mankind  feel  so  little  veneration  of  God — how  it 
may  be  increased,  55.  The  Deity  unsearchable,  58.  Hope  and  Confidence 
in  the  prospect  of  futurity,  59 — Resurrection,  59 — Scenes  of  Eternity,  60. 

Sect.  III.  On  the  Wisdom*  and  Intelligence  of  the  Deity,          .        61 

Wisdom  defined,  61 — Displayed  in  the  Structure  of  the  Solar  System,  62. 
Distance  of  the  Sun,  62.  Rotation  of  the  Planets,  63 — Principal  reason 
why  such  a  motion  exists,  63.  Wisdom  displayed  in  other  Systems,  65. 
Minute  displays  of  this  attribute  cannot  be  traced  in  the  heavens,  65. 
Wisdom  as  displayed  in  the  constitution  of  our  globe — adjustment  of  its 

ix 


X  CONTENTS. 

solid  parts  to  the  necessities  of  the  beings  which  inhabit  it,  66.  Mountains, 
their  uses — exist  in  other  worlds,  67.  t)iversity  of  colour — argument  for 
a  plurality  of  worlds,  67-69 — general  colour  which  prevails  in  the  scene  of 
nature,  69.  Water,  its  use  in  the  system  of  nature,  70 — its  composition, 
evaporation,  70 — motion  of  the  liquid  element — its  beneficial  eli'ects,  71. 
The  Atmosphere — its  weight  and  pressure,  72 — its  component  parts,  73 — its 
various  properties — necessary  to  animal  life,  flame,  sound,  twilight — wis- 
dom displayed  in  its  constitution,  73-76.  Expansion  of  water  in  the  act  of 
freezing,  76. 

Variety  of  Nature.  Vegetables — their  number  and  variety,  78. 
Animals — variety  in  their  organisation,  80.  Eyes  of  Insects — their  exquisite 
mechanism,  81.  Subterraneous  Regions,  81.  Atmosphere,  82.  The 
Variety  of  Nature  aflTords  a  faint  idea  of  the  ivfinity  of  the  Creator,  83. 
Illustrated  in  the  number  of  animal  parts  and  functions,  84.  Reflection,  85. 
Variety  the  foundation  of  our  judgements,  85.  Beauty  and  sublimity  of 
Nature,  86.     Primeval  state  of  our  globe,  88 — other  worlds,  88. 

Mechaiiism  of  Animated  beings.  Structure  of  the  Human  Eye,  89 — 
its  coats,  humours,  muscles,  orbit,  and  motions,  90-92.  Wisdom  dis- 
played in  its  construction,  92.  Light — its  velocity,  minuteness,  colours, 
and  adaptation  to  the  eye,  93.  Manner  in  which  Vision  is  performed, 
94 — explained  by  a  figure,  and  an  experiment,  95 — illustrated  by  the  view 
from  Salisbury  Crags,  96.  Multitude  of  rays  which  flow  from  every 
object,  96 — smallness  of  the  image  on  the  retina,  illustrated  by  calcula- 
tion, 97 — what  proportion  of  the  solar  light  falls  on  our  globe,  98 — Reflec- 
tions, 100.  Mechanism  for  viewing  near  and  distant  objects,  100 — contraction 
and  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  101 — distance  at  which  we  see  distinctly,  101. 
Summary  view  of  adaptations  in  the  structure  of  the  eye,  101.  Eyes  of 
superior  intelligences,  102.  A''isual  organs  of  the  inferior  animals,  103. 
Mechanism  of  the  hones  illustrated,  105 — exemphfied  in  the  joints  of  the 
fingers,  the  wrist,  and  the  movements  of  which  the  head  is  susceptible, 
106-110.  Illustration  of  the  horizontal  motion  of  the  wrist,  and  the  utility 
of  the  human  hand,  with  figures,  106-107.  Moral  reflections  on  the  im- 
propriety of  overlooking  the  Divine  Wisdom  in  the  system  of  nature, 
110-113. 

Sect.  IV.  On  the  Goodness  or  Benevolence  of  the  Deity,        -        113 

Benevolence  of  God  in  relation  to  Man,  113.  What  would  be  the  con- 
stitution of  the  world  were  its  Creator  a  malevolent  Being,  114-115 — 
Benevolence  displayed  to  man,  though  a  depraved  intelligence,  115.  Mercy 
displayed  in  the  system  of  nature,  116.  Benevolence  as  displayed  towards 
the  lower  animals,  117.  Extract  from  Dr.  Paley,  118.  General  Reflec- 
tions, 119. 

CHAPTER  II. 

A  CURSORY  VIEW  OF  SOME  OF   THE   SCIENCES  WHICH  ARE  RELATED  TO  RELI- 
GION AND  CHRISTIAN  THEOLOGY. 

Introduction,  120.  Extensive  range  of  Theology,  120.  Bad  effects  of 
setting  Religion  in  opposition  to  Science,  121.  Harmony  of  the  operations 
of  God  in  nature  and  Revelation,  121. 

Natural  History — its  extensive  range,  1?3.  Outline  of  its  principal 
objects — on  the  surface,  and  in  the  interior  recesses  of  the  earth — in  the 
atmosphere — the  vegetable,  mineral,  and  animal  kingdoms — and  in  the 
region  of  the  heavens,  123-127.  Description  of  the  Banian  Tree,  127. 
Reflections,  130.  Monkey  Bread  Tree,  130.  Splendour  and  felicity  of 
insect  life,  131.  Invisible  worlds,  133 — infinity  of  the  universe,  133.  Reli- 
gious tendency  of  this  Science,  133.  It  affords  a  manifestation  of  the  Deity, 


CONTENTS.  XI 

and  expands  our  conceptions  of  his  operations,  134 — ennobles  the  human 
mind,  135.     Recommended  by  the  sacred  writers,  135-137. 

Geo&rapiit,  138.  Its  object — Figure  of  the  Earth,  138 — Proofs  of  its 
splierical  form,  139.  Relation  which  the  discovery  of  the  figure  of  the 
Earth  bears  to  the  plan  of  Providence,  140.  How  the  diameter  of  the 
earth  enables  us  to  calculate  the  distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  illus- 
trated M'lth  figures,  141-143,  Magnitude  and  natural  divisions  of  the 
earth,  143-145.  General  features  of  its  surface,  145.  Mountains — their 
general  ranges,  and  the  sublime  scenes  they  exhibit,  145-147.  The 
Ocean — its  extent,  depth,  bottom,  and  motions,  147-150.  Rivers — their 
number,  size,  and  the  quantity  of  water  they  pour  into  the  ocean,  150-151. 
How  they  are  supplied,  151 — their  use  in  the  system  of  nature,  151. 
Artificial  division  of  the  earth,  153.  Europe,  description  of  its  extent, 
commerce,  population,  &c.,  153-155.  Asia,  its  extent,  population,  and 
productions,  155.  Africa,  its  divisions,  extent,  and  characteristics,  156. 
America,  its  dimensions,  lakes,  rivers,  &c.,  157.  United  States,  their  ex- 
tent, population,  literature,  &c.,  157.  Australasia,  the  countries  it  com- 
prehends, 158.  New  South  Wales,  South  Australia,  &c.,  159.  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  159.  New  Zealand,  159.  New  Guinea,  New  Bri- 
tain, &c.,  160.  Polynesian  islands,  161.  Tahiti,  its  characteristics,  and 
the  moral  improvement  of  its  inhabitants,  161.  Sandwich  islands,  their 
improvement,  162.  Friendly  islands.  Navigator's,  Marquesas,  New 
Hebrides — Murder  of  Williams  the  missionary,  162.  Number  and  variety 
of  the  earth's  inhabitants,  164.  Number  which  has  existed  since  the 
Creation,  164.  Number  at  the  Resurrection,  and  the  space  they  would 
occupy,  165.  Number  which  the  earth  would  contain — strictures  on 
Malthus,  166.  Utility  of  the  study  of  Geography  to  Kelisio?i — to  Direc- 
tors of  Missionary  Societies — to  Private  Christians,  166-169.  Works  on 
the  subject  of  Christian  Missions  characterized  and  recommended,  168. 
Grandeur  of  its  physical  objects — utility  of  its  moral  facts,  170. 

Geology,  171.  Its  object  and  connexion  with  Rehgion,  171 — an  inte- 
resting subject  of  inquiry,  172.  Materials  which  compose  the  crust  of  our 
globe,  173.  Primary  rocks,  their  constituent  materials  and  general  aspect, 
174.  Traiisition  rocks,  their  formation,  &c.,  174.  Secondary  rocks, 
coal  formations,  &c.,  175.  Upper  secondary  rocks,  and  their  organic 
remains,  177.  Tertiary  rocks,  their  deposits  and  fossil  shells,  177.  Dilu- 
vial deposits,  178.  Alluvial,  and  the  Deltas  formed  by,  179.  Volcanic 
rocks,  trap,  basalt,  Fingal's  cave.  Giant's  causeway,  &c.,  179-181.  Gene- 
ral remarks  on  organic  remains,  181.  Various  geological  phenomena, 
182-183 — Periods  of  organic  remains,  184.  Description  of  the  Mammoth, 
Megatherium,  &c.,  with  a  figure,  184-186.  Conclusions  deduced  from 
the  facts  of  geology,  186-188.  Their  accordance  with  Sacred  History, 
187-189.  Genesis,  i,  1,  explained,  189-191.  High  antiquity  of  the  earth 
not  inconsistent  with  Scripture,  191-193.  Discoveries  of  astronomy  illus- 
trative of  Geology,  194.  Progression  a  characteristic  of  the  Divine  plans 
both  in  the  physical  and  moral  world,  194-195.  Date  of  the  present  sys- 
tem of  our  globe,  195.  Genesis,  i,  2,  illustrated,  196.  Subhme  objects 
which  this  science  exhibits,  197-198. 

Astronomy — its  sublime  objects,  198.  Apparent  motions  of  the  Sun, 
198 — of  the  Moon,  199.  EcUpses  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  199.  Apparent 
motion  of  the  starry  heavens,  200.  Position  of  the  Pole  star  and  Ursa 
Major,  described  and  represented,  200.  Stars  and  planets  seen  in  the 
day-time,  and  with  what  powers  of  the  telescope  they  may  be  distin- 
guislied.  201.  Apparent  revolution  of  the  celestial  vault  indicates  Almighty 
power,  202.  Stars  never  shift  their  relative  positions,  203.  Solar  System. 
The  Sun — his  size  and  probable  destination  illustrated,  203 — his  spots  and 
atmosphere,  205 — different  kind  of  rays  emitted  from  his  body — his  dis- 
tance illustrated,  206.     Mercury — his  size,  rotation,  quantity  of  light  and 


XU  CONTENTS. 

heat,  &c.,  20G.  Proportion  of  caloric  on  the  different  planets,  207.  Verms 
— her  size,  phases,  mountains,  transits,  and  general  phenomena,  207. 
Original  observations  on,  and  mode  by  which  her  diurnal  rotation  may  be 
determined,  208.  Earth — proofs  of  its  annual  and  diurnal  motions,  208. 
The  Moon — description  of  her  majesiic  mountain  scenery,  luminous  spots, 
celestial  appearances,  illuminating  power,  superficial  contents,  &c.,  210- 
212.  JSlars — his  distance,  atmosphere,  luminous  zone,  &-c.,  212.  New 
Planets — Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta,  213 — their  anomalies,  singu- 
larities, and  probable  origin,  214.  Meteoric  Stones,  214.  Jupiter — his 
bulk,  rotation,  belts,  and  the  appearances  of  his  moons,  215.  Telescopic 
view  of  his  belts  and  sateUiles,  217.  Satur7i — his  figure,  belts,  moons, 
and  quantity  of  hght,  218.  His  Rings,  their  dimensions,  motion,  and 
phenomena — illustrated  by  a  figure,  218.  Supposed  division  of  his  exterior 
ring,  220.  Splendour  of  the  firmament,  as  viewed  from  this  planet,  {see 
the  engraving,)  221.  Herschel — his  distance,  size,  and  qunntity  of  light, 
222.  Comets — their  tails,  velocity,  orbits,  size,  and  number,  223.  Encke's, 
Gambart's,  and  Halley's  comets,  225.  Motion  of  the  solar  system  in 
absolute  space — its  destination — plurality  of  worlds  intimated  in  Scripture, 
226.  The  Fixed  Stars — their  distance  illustrated — arrangement,  changes 
— moral  reflections,  227.  Parallax  and  distance  of  61  Cygni,  228.  Figure 
and  description  of  Orion,  229.  Relation  of  Astronoimj  to  Religion — moral 
effects  which  its  objects  have  a  tendency  to  produce — criminaHty  of  over- 
looking the  works  of  God,  &c.,  233-235. 

Natural  Philosophy — its  object  and  different  departments,  236. 
Mechanics — subjects  it  embraces,  and  its  importance  to  the  improvement 
of  mankind,  236.  Hydrostatics — its  leading  principles  and  uses,  illustrated 
by  figures,  238.  Ffieiirnatics — its  principles,  and  the  experiments  by 
which  they  are  illustrated,  241.  Acoustics — various  facts  in  relation  to 
sound,  242.  Optics — leading  facts  and  principles  of  this  science,  Burning- 
glasses,  &c.,  243.  The  Daguerreotype — description  of  its  nature,  pro- 
cesses, and  effects,  245-247.  Electricity — its  nature,  phenomer.n,  effects, 
and  agency  in  the  system  of  nature,  247.  Electrotype — its  invention  and 
practical  applications,  250.  Galvanism — its  singular  effects  on  metals,  &c., 
and  on  the  animal  system — applied  to  the  blasting  of  rocks — various  facts 
which  it  explains,  250-252.  Magnetism — its  various  phenomena  and 
effects,     252.  Elect ro-Magjietism — its  phenomena  and  effects,   254- 

258.  Relation  of  Natural  Philosophy  to  Religion — its  inventions  meliorate 
the  condition  of  mankind — illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  electric  fluid — it 
undermines  the  influence  of  superstition — unfolds  the  incessant  agency  of 
God — indifference  to  this  subject  unreasonable,  258-264. 

Chemistry — its  objects,  and  present  dignified  station,  265.  General 
forms  of  matter — simple  and  compound  substances,  266.  Caloric — its 
sources  and  properties,  266.  Oxygen — its  properties  and  combinations, 
268.  Nitrous  Oxide — its  singular  effects,  270.  Nitrogen — its  effects  on 
flame  and  animal  life,  270.  Hydrogen — its  properties  and  uses,  270.  Car- 
bon— its  nature,  combinations,  and  antiseptic  properties,  271.  Chlorine — 
its  properties,  272.  Iodine — its  discovery,  &c.,  272.  Sulphin — its  origin, 
combinations,  and  properties,  273.  Phosphorus — history  of  its  discovery 
— how  prepared — curious  experiments  with  this  substance — Phosphoric 
phenomena  in  the  system  of  nature,  274.  Connexion  of  this  science  with 
Religion — it  displays  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  God,  and  the  mode 
of  his  present  and  future  operations — improves  the  condition  oilman — and 
carries  forward  our  views  to  a  more  glorious  and  auspicious  era,  276-278. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology — their  general  object — human  body,  its 
different  parts  and  divisions,  279.  Bones — their  number,  form,  and 
positions,  280.  Mjiscles — their  nature,  use,  and  extraordinary  strength, 
280.  Heart  and  Blood  Vessels,  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  281. 
Respiration — curious  structure  of  the  lungs,  283.     Digestion,  285.     Per- 


CONTENTS.  XIU 

spiratlon,  285.  Sensation,  and  the  system  of  nerves,  285,  Summary,  286. 
Moral  Reflections — this  branch  of  study  teaches  us  our  dependence  on  a 
Superior  Power — and  excites  to  gratitude,  286-289. 

History,  Ancient  and  Modern — its  objects,  advantages,  and  con- 
nexion with  ReUgion,  289-293.  Connexion  of  the  sciences  and  of  the 
Divine  dispensations  with  each  other,  292.     Concluding  remarks,  293. 

CHAPTER  m. 

THE  RELATION  WHICH  THE  INVENTIONS  OF  ART  BEAR  TO  THE  OBJECTS  OF 
RELIGION. 

Art  of  Printing,  its  origin,  and  beneficial  effects — Stereotype  and  Steam 
printing,  294-297. 

Art  of  Navigation — Mariner's  Compass,  its  discovery  and  use,  299. 

The  Telescope,  its  invention,  and  the  discoveries  made  by  it — serves 
instead  of  a  celestial  vehicle — Magnifying  powers  of  Sir  W.  Herschel's 
telescopes.  Earl  of  Rosse's  Speculum,  301. 

The  Microscope,  and  views  it  exhibits  of  the  wisdom  of  God,  304. 

Steam  Navigation,  its  utility  in  promoting  the  intercourse  of  mankind — 
voyages  across  the  Atlantic — its  relation  to' the  objects  of  religion,  306. 

Air  Balloons,  utility  of,  when  arrived  at  perfection — proposed  improve- 
ment in.  History  of  their  invention — Lunardi's  ascent — the  Parachute — 
Late  improvements  in,  &c.,  308. 

Acoustic  Tunnels.  Experiments  on  the  conveyance  of  sound.  M. 
Biot's  remarkable  experiment — Don  Gautier's  experiment  and  suggestion. 
Conclusions  in  reference  to  the  extensive  conveyance  of  sound,  315. 

Electric  Telegraphs,  their  nature  and  apphcations,  319. 

Railways,  their  history,  number,  utility,  and  arrangements,  321. 

Practical  remarks — utility  of  the  arts  in  relation  to  the  Millennial  era,  321. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SCRIPTURAL  FACTS  ILLUSTRATED  FROM  THE  SYSTEM  OF  NATURE. 

I.  Science  may  frequently  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  true  interpretation  of 
Scripture.     Canon  or  rule  for  Scripture  interpretation — illustrated,  332. 

II.  The  Depravity  of  Man  illustrated,  from  a  consideration  of  the  state 
of  the  interior  strata  of  the  earth.  Volcanoes,  and  the  terrible  ravages 
they  produce.  Earthquakes  and  their  dreadful  effects.  Thunder-storms, 
tempests,  and  hurricanes.     General  reflections  on  this  subject,  335. 

HI.  The  ives?irredio?i  illustraled.  Transformations  of  Insects.  Inde- 
structibiUty  of  matter — conclusions  from  it,  345. 

IV.  General  Conflagration.  Concluding  reflections.  Topics  omitted 
in  this  volume,  348. 

CHAPTER  V. 

BENEFICIAL  EFFECTS  WHICH  WOULD  RESULT  FROM  CONNECTING  SCIENCE 
WITH  RELIGION. 

I.  The  variety  of  topics  would  allure  the  attention  of  intelligent  minds 
to  religious  subjects.  Principle  of  novelty  intended  by  the  Creator  to  be 
gratified — illustrated  in  the  variety  which  appears  in  the  earth,  the  heavens, 
and  the  Volume  of  Revelation,  352. 

II.  Science  enables  us  to  take  an  extensive  survey  of  the  empire  of  God 
— illustrates  many  sublime  passages  of  the  Bible — qualifies  us  for  comply- 
ing with  several  Divine  injunctions — danger  of  selfishness  and  indifference 
in  this  respect.  Our  conceptions  of  God  depend  on  our  views  of  the 
extent  of  his  dominions,  356. 

III.  Science  enlarges  our  views  of  the  operations  of  Providence,  in 

2 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

relation  to  the  past  and  present  scenes  of  the  world.  The  economy  of  the 
inferior  animals.  The  physical  and  moral  economy  of  the  celestial 
worlds,  365. 

IV.  Science,  blended  with  Religion,  would  produce  a  general  expan- 
sion of  mind,  and  liberality  of  views — in  reference  to  the  opinions  and 
actions  of  men,  and  to  the  works  and  the  ways  of  God — illustrated  at 
large,  373. 

V.  It  would  induce  a  spirit  of  piety,  and  profound  humility.  Sources 
of  piety — illustrated  by  example.  Humihty — illustrated  by  the  examples 
of  Mr.  Boyle,  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  of  superior  intelligences.  General 
conclusions,  380. 


APPENDIX. 


Note  I.  Illustration  of  the  rate  of  motion  in  the  heavenly  bodies,  on  the 
supposition  that  the  earth  is  at  rest,  385. 

Note  II.  Experimental  illustrations  of  the  pressure  and  compressibility 
of  the  Atmosphere,  the  Diving  Bell,  &c.,  386. 

Note  III.  On  the  ideas  of  Magnitude,  Motion,  and  Duration,  as  ex- 
pressed by  numbers,  389. 

Note  IV.  On  the  means  by  which  it  may  probably  be  ascertained 
whether  the  Moon  be  a  habitable  world,  390. 

Note  V.  Remarks  on  the  late  pretended  discovery  of  a  Lunar  fortifica- 
tion, 392. 

Note  VI.  On  a  plurality  of  worlds,  393. 

Note  VII.  The  Daguerreotype,  394. 

Note  VIII.  Electro-Magnetic  Machines,  395. 

Note  IX.  On  the  first  Inventor  of  Printing,  396. 

Note  X.  On  Telescopes ;  with  a  brief  notice  of  a  New  Reflecting 
Telescope,  constructed  by  the  Author,  396. 

Note  XI.  On  Steam  Navigation,  &c.,  399. 

Note  XII.  Strictures  on  a  certain  sentiment  respecting  the  work  of 
human  redemption,  402. 

Note  XIII.  Extract  from  Dr.  Dwight's  Theology,  405. 

Note  XIV.  List  of  Popular  Works  on  the  different  Sciences  treated  of 
in  this  Volume,  with  Occasional  Remarks,  405. 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 

Figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7 — Representation  of  the  planets,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Herschel,  the  Earth,  and  Moon,  in  their  relative  sizes — appearance 
of  Saturn  as  seen  from  his  surface,  and  dehneations  of  the  parts  of  the 
human  eye.  The  shade  on  the  upper  part  of  the  rings  represents  the 
shadow  of  Saturn  as  it  appears  on  the  rings  about  midnight,  16. 

Figure  8.  Manner  in  which  the  images  of  external  objects  are  depicted 
on  the  eye,  95. 

Figure  9.  Representation  of  the  bones  of  the  hand  and  arm,  107. 

Figure  10.  The  Radius— P^ig.  11.  The  Ulna,  107. 

Figure  12.  The  Banian  Tree,  130. 

Figure  13.  Illustration  of  the  manner  of  measuring  heights,  142. 

Figure  14.  Manner  of  finding  the  Moon's  horizontal  parallax,  142. 

Figures  15,  16,  17.  Beds  of  granite,  and  the  appearances  and  positions 
oi  Primary  Rocks,  175. 

Figure  18.  Representation  of  the  strata  connected  with  coal  beds,  176. 

Figure  19.  Representation  of  the  fossil  Megatherium,  185. 

Figure  20.  Dehneation  of  Ursa  Major  and  Ursa  Minor,  and  the  Pole 
Star,  200. 

Figure  21.  Telescopic  view  of  Jupiter's  belts  and  satellites,  217. 

Figure  22.  Saturn  and  its  rings  in  their  proportional  sizes,  220. 

Figure  23.  Delineation  of  the  constellation  Orion,  229. 

Figure  24.  Manner  in  which  water  is  conveyed  in  pipes,  239. 

Figure  25.  The  Siphon,  239. 

Figure  26.  Explanatory  of  intermitting  springs,  239. 

Figure  27.  The  Mariner's  Compass.  This  compass  is  usually  divided 
into  32  points  ;  in  the  figure  only  16  are  represented.  The  letters  NNE., 
SSE.,  &c.,  denote  North  North  East,  South  South  East,  &c.  The 
magnetic  needle  moves  above  these  divisions  on  a  pivot,  300. 

Figure  28.  The  Parachute,  314. 

Figure  29.  An  apparatus  connected  with  the  Parachute,  314. 

Figure  30.  View  of  Mr.  Green's  Balloon,  314. 

Figure  31.  View  of  the  locomotive,  tender,  and  Railway  trains,  322, 

Figure  32.  Illustration  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  and  stars,  385. 

Fig.  7,  in  the  frontispiece,  represents  a  view  of  the  rings  and  moons  of 
Saturn,  as  they  would  appear  to  a  spectator  from  the  surface  of  Saturn,  at 
a  point  about  15  or  20  degrees  north  of  its  equator.  The  shadow  of  the 
body  of  the  planet  appears  about  the  middle  of  the  rings  at  midnight.  At 
sunset  this  shadow  will  appear  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  rings,  and  will 
appear  to  move  gradually  onwards  from  east  to  west  till  sunrise,  when  it 
will  disappear  from  the  western  side  of  the  rings.     See  pages  220-221. 

XV 


THE 


CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 


INTRODUCTION. 


On  the  subject  of  religion,  mankind  have,  in  all  ages,  been 
prone  to  run  into  extremes.  While  some  have  been  disposed 
to  attach  too  much  importance  to  the  mere  exertions  of  the 
human  intellect,  and  to  imagine  that  man,  by  the  light  of  un- 
assisted reason,  is  able  to  explore  the  path  of  true  wisdom 
and  happiness, — the  greater  part  of  religionists,  on  the  other 
hand,  have  been  disposed  to  treat  scientific  knowledge,  in  its 
relation  to  religion,  with  a  degree  of  indifference  bordering 
upon  contempt.  Both  these  dispositions  are  equally  foolish 
and  preposterous.  For  he  who  exalts  human  reason,  as  the 
only  sure  guide  to  wisdom  and  felicity,  forgets  that  man,  in 
his  present  slate,  is  a  depraved  intelligence,  and  consequently 
liable  to  err ;  and  that  all  those  who  have  been  left  solely  to 
its  dictates,  have  uniformly  failed  in  attaining  these  desirable 
objects.  During  a  period  of  more  than  five  thousand  eight 
hundred  years,  the  greater  part  of  the  human  race  have  been 
left  solely  to  the  guidance  of  their  rational  powers,  in  order 
to  grope  their  way  to  the  temple  of  knowledge,  and  the  por- 
tals of  immortality ;  but  what  has  been  the  result  of  all  their 
anxious  researches  ?  Instead  of  acquiring  correct  notions  of 
the  great  Author  of  their  existence,  and  of  the  nature  of  that 
homage  which  is  due  to  his  perfections,  "  they  have  become 
vain  in  their  imaginations,  and  their  foolish  hearts  have  been 
darkened.  Professing  themselves  to  be  wise,  they  have  be- 
come fools ;  and  have  changed  the  glory  of  the  incorruptible 
God  into  an  image  made  like  to  corruptible  man,  and  to  four- 
footed  beasts,  and  creeping  things."  Instead  of  acquiring 
correct  views  of  the  principles  of  moral  action,  and  conduct- 
ing themselves  according   to  the  eternal  rules  of  rectitude, 

2*  (17) 


18  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

they  have  displayed  the  operation  of  the  most  diabolical  pas- 
sions, indulged  in  a  continual  warfare,  and  desolated  the  earth 
M'ith  rapine  and  horrid  carnage;  so  that  the  history  of  the 
world  presents  to  our  view  litde  more  than  a  series  of  revolt- 
ing details  of  the  depravity  of  our  species,  and  of  the  wrongs 
Avhich  one  tribe  of  human  beings  has  wilfully  inflicted  upon 
another. 

This  has  been  the  case,  not  only  among  a  few  uncultivated 
hordes  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  in  the  plains  of  Tartary,  and 
the  wilds  of  America,  but  even  among  those  nations  which 
stood  highest  in  the  ranks  of  civilisation  and  of  science. 
The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  boasted  of  their  attain- 
ments in  philosophy,  and  their  progress  in  the  arts,  entertain- 
ed the  most  foolish,  contradictory,  and  unworthy  notions  of 
the  object  of  divine  worship,  of  the  requirements  of  religion, 
and  of  the  eternal  destiny  of  man.  Tli'ey  adored  a  host  of 
divinities  characterized  by  impiety,  fraud,  injustice,  falsehood, 
lewdness,  treachery,  revenge,  murder,  and  every  other  vice 
which  can  debase  the  human  mind,  instead  of  offering  a  tri- 
bute of  rational  homage  to  that  Supreme  Intelligence  who  made, 
and  who  governs  the  universe.  Even  their  priests  and  philo- 
sophers indulged  in  the  most  degrading  and  abominable  prac- 
tices, and  entertained  the  most  irrational  notions  in  regard  to 
the  origin  of  the  universe,  and  the  moral  government  of  the 
world.  Most  of  them  denied  a  future  state  of  retribution,  and 
all  of  them  had  their  doubts  respecting  the  reality  of  an  im- 
mortal existence  :  and  as  to  the  doctrine  of  a  resurrection 
from  the  dead,  they  never  dreamed  of  such  an  event,  and 
scouted  the  idea,  when  proposed  to  them,  as  the  climax  of 
absurdity.  The  glory  to  which  their  princes  .and  generals 
a.-^pired  was,  to  spread  death  and  destruction  among  their 
fellow-men — to  carry  fire  and  sword,  terror  and  dismay,  and 
all  the  engines  of  destruction,  through  surrounding  nations — 
to  fill  their  fields  with  heaps  of  slain — to  plunder  the  sur- 
vivers  of  every  earthly  comfort,  and  to  drag  captive  kings  at 
their  chariot  wheels — that  they  might  enjoy  the  splendour 
and  the  honours  of  a  triumph.  What  has  been  now  stated 
with  regard  to  the  most  enlightened  nations  of  antiquity,  will 
equally  apply  to  the  present  inhabitants  of  China,  of  Hindos- 
tan,  of  the  Japanese  Islands,  of  the  Birman  Empire,  and  of 
every  other  civilized  nation  on  which  the  light  of  revelation 
has  never  shone — with  this  additional  consideration,  that  they 
have  enjoyed  an  additional  period  of  eighteen  hundred  years 
for  making  further  investigations;  and  are,  at  this  moment, 
as   far  from  the  object  of  their  pursuit,  as   when  they  first 


IiXTRODUCTION.  19 

commenced  their  researches ;  and  not  only  so,  but  some  of 
these  nations,  in  modern  times,  have  mingled  with  their 
abominable  superstitions  and  idolatries,  many  absurdities  and 
horrid  cruelties,  which  were  altogether  unknown  among  the 
Greek  and  J^onian  population. 

Such  are  the  melancholy  results  to  which  men  have  been 
led,  when  left  to  the  guidance  of  unassisted  reason,  in  t[ie 
most  interesting  and  important  of  all  investigations.  They 
have  wandered  in  the  mazes  of  error  and  delusion ;  and  their 
researches,  instead  of  directing  and  expanding  our  religious 
views,  have  tended  only  to  bewilder  the  human  mind,  and  to 
throw  a  deeper  shade  of  intellectual  gloom  over  our  apostate 
world.  After  a  period  of  six  thousand  years  has  been  spent 
in  anxious  inquiries  after  the  path  to  true  knowledge  and 
happiness — ignorance,  superstition,  idolatry,  vice,  and  misery, 
still  continue  to  sway  the  sceptre  over  the  great  majority  of 
the  human  race ;  and  if  we  be  allowed  to  reason  from  the 
past  to  the  future,  we  may  rest  assured,  that  while  mankind 
are  destitute  of  a  guide  superior  to  the  glimmerings  of  de- 
praved reason,  they  would  be  no  nearer  the  object  of  their 
pursuit,  after  the  lapse  of  sixty  thousand  years,  than  at  the 
present  moment.  It  is  only  in  connexion  with  the  discoveries 
of  revelation  that  we  can  expect,  that  the  efforts  of  human 
reason  and  activity  will  be  successful  in  abolishing  the  reign  of 
ignorance  and  degrading  superstition — in  illuminating  the  be- 
nighted tribes  of  the  Pagan  world — and  in  causing  "  righteous- 
ness, and  order,  and  peace,  to  spring  forth  before  all  the  na- 
tions." Though  the  Cliristian  religion  has  never  yet  been  fully 
understood  and  recognized,  in  all  its  aspects  and  bearings,  nor 
its  requirements  been  cordially  complied  with,  by  tlie  great  body 
of  those  who  profess  to  believe  in  its  divine  origin,  yet  it  is 
only  in  those  nations  who  have  acknowledged  its  authority, 
and  in  some  measure  submitted  to  its  dictates,  that  any  thing 
approximating  to  just  conceptions  of  the  Supreme  Intelligence, 
and  of  his  moral  government,  is  found  to  prevail. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  though  the  light  of  nature  is  of 
itself  a  feeble  and  insufficient  guide  to  direct  us  in  our  views 
of  the  Supreme  Intelligence,  and  of  our  eternal  destination, 
yet  it  is  a  most  dangerous  and  delusive  error  to  imagine,  that 
reason,  and  the  study  of  the  material  world,  ought  to  be  dis- 
carded from  the  science  of  religion.  The  man  who  would 
discard  the  effi^rts  of  the  human  intellect,  and  the  science  of 
nature,  from  religion,  forgets, — that  He  who  is  the  Author  of 
human  redemption,  is  also  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the 
whole  system  of  the  material  universe — that  it  is  one  end  of 


20  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

that  moral  renovation  which  the  Gospel  effects,  to  qualify  us 
for  contemplating  aright  the  displays  of  divine  perfection 
which  the  works  of  creation  exhibit — that  the  visible  works 
of  God  are  the  principal  medium  by  which  he  displays  the 
attributes  of  his  nature  to  intelligent  beings — that  the  study 
and  contemplation  of  these  works  employ  the  faculties  of  in- 
telligences of  a  superior  order* — that  man,  had  he  remained 
in  primeval  innocence,  would  have  been  chiefly  employed  in 
such  contemplations — that  it  is  one  main  design  of  divine 
revelation  to  illustrate  the  operations  of  Providence,  and  the 
agency  of  God,  in  the  formation  and  preservation  of  all  things 
— and  that  the  Scriptures  are  full  of  sublime  descriptions  of 
the  visible  creation,  and  of  interesting  references  to  the  various 
objects  which  adorn  the  scenery  of  nature.  Without  the  cul- 
tivation of  our  reasoning  powers,  and  an  investigation  of  the 
laws  and  economy  of  nature,  we  could  not  appreciate  many 
of  the  excellent  characters,  the  interesting  aspects,  and  the 
sublime  references  of  revealed  religion  :  we  should  lose  the 
full  evidence  of  those  arguments  by  which  the  existence  of 
God,  and  his  attributes  of  wisdom  and  omnipotence,  are  most 
powerfully  demonstrated  :  we  should  remain  destitute  of  those 
sublime  conceptions  of  the  perfections  and  agency  of  Jeho- 
vah, which  the  grandeur  and  immensity  of  his  works  are 
calculated  to  inspire  :  we  should  never  perceive,  in  its  full 
force,  the  evidence  of  those  proofs  on  which  the  divine 
authority  of  revelation  is  founded :  we  could  not  give  a  ra- 
tional interpretation  of  the  spirit  nor  meaning  of  many  parts 
of  the  sacred  oracles ;  nor  could  we  comply  with  those  po- 
sitive commands  of  God,  which  enjoin  us  to  contemplate  the 
wonders  of  his  power,  "  to  meditate  on  all  his  works,  and  to 
talk  of  all  his  doings." 

Notwithstanding  these  and  many  other  considerations, 
which  show  the  folly  of  overlooking  the  visible  manifesta- 
tions of  Deity  in  the  exercises  of  religion,  it  has  long  been 
the  practice  of  certain  theologians  to  depreciate  the  wonderful 
works  of  Jehovah,  and  to  attempt  to  throw  them  into  the  shade, 
as  if  they  were  unworthy  of  our  serious  contemplation.  In 
their  view,  to  be  a  bad  philosopher  is  the  surest  way  to  be- 
come a  good  Christian,  and,  to  expand  the  views  of  the  hu- 
man mind,  is  to  endanger  Christianity,  and  to  render  the 
design  of  religion  abortive.  They  seem  to  consider  it  as  a 
most  noble  triumph  to  the  Christian  cause,  to  degrade  the 
material  world,  and  to  trample  under  fool  not  only  the  earth, 

*  Rev.  iv.  11 ;  xv.  3,  &c. 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

but  the  visible  heavens,  as  an  old,  shattered,  and  corrupted 
fabric,  which  no  longer  demands  our  study  or  admiration. 
Their  expressions,  in  a  variety  of  instances,  would  lead  us 
almost  to  conclude,  that  they  considered  the  economy  of  na- 
ture as  set  in  opposition  to  the  economy  of  redemption,  and 
that  it  is  not  the  same  God  that  contrived  the  system  of  na- 
ture, who  is  also  the  "  Author  of  eternal  salvation  to  all  them 
that  obey  him." 

It  is,  unquestionably,  both  foolish  and  impious  to  overlook 
or  to  undervalue  any  of  the  modes  by  which  the  Divine  Be- 
ing has  been  pleased  to  make  known  his  nature  and  perfec- 
tions to  mankind.  Since  he  has  given  a  display  of  his 
"  eternal  power  and  Godhead"  in  the  grand  theatre  of  nature, 
which  forms  the  subject  of  scientific  investigation,  it  was 
surely  never  intended,  and  would  ill  comport  with  reverence 
for  its  adorable  Author,  that  such  magnificent  displays  of  his 
power,  wisdom,  and  beneficence,  as  the  material  universe  ex- 
hibits, should  be  treated,  by  his  intelligent  offspring,  with  in- 
difference or  neglect.  It  becomes  us  to  contemplate,  with 
adoring  gratitude,  every  ray  of  our  Creator's  glory,  whether 
as  emanating  from  the  light  of  revelation,  or  as  reflected  from 
the  scenery  of  nature  around  us,  or  as  descending  from  those 
regions  where  stars  unnumbered  shine,  and  planets  and 
comets  run  their  solemn  rounds.  Instead  of  contrasting  the 
one  department  of  knowledge  with  the  other,  with  a  view  of 
depreciating  the  science  of  nature,  our  duty  is,  to  derive  from 
both  as  much  information  and  instruction  as  they  are  calcu- 
lated to  afibrd ;  to  mark  the  harmony  of  the  revelations  they 
respectively  unfold ;  and  to  use  the  revelations  of  nature  for 
the  purpose  of  confirming,  and  amplifying,  and  carrying  for- 
ward our  views  of  the  revelation  contained  in  the  Sacred 
Scriptures. 

*  With  regard  to  the  revelation  derived  from  the  sacred  re- 
cords, it  has  been  imagined  by  some,  that  it  has  little  or  no 
reference  to  the  operations  of  the  material  system,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  study  of  the  visible  works  of  God  can  be  of 
little  importance  in  promoting  religious  knowledge  and  holy 
affections.  In  the  sequel  of  this  volume,  I  shall  endeavour 
to  show,  that  this  sentiment  is  extremely  fallacious  and  desti- 
tute of  a  foundation.  But,  in  the  mean  time,  although  it  were 
taken  for  granted,  it  would  form  an  argument  against  the  com- 
bination of  science  with  religion.  For  it  ought  to  be  care- 
fully remarked,  that  divine  revelation  is  chiefly  intended  to 
instruct  us  in  the  knowledge  of  those  truths  which  interest 
us  as  subjects  of  the  moral  administration  of  the  Governor 


22  CHRISTIAN  PHlLOSOniER- 

of  the  world, — or,  in  other  words,  as  apostate  creatures,  and 
as  moral  agents.  Its  grand  object  is  to  develope  the  open- 
ings and  bearings  of  the  plan  of  divine  mercy ;  to  counter- 
act those  evil  propensities  and  passions  which  sin  has  intro- 
duced ;  to  inculcate  those  holy  principles  and  moral  laws 
which  tend  to  unite  mankind  in  harmony  and  love ;  and  to 
produce  tliose  amiable  tempers  and  dispositions  of  mind 
which  alone  can  fit  us  for  enjoying  happiness,  either  in  this 
world  or  in  the  world  to  come.  For  this  reason,  doubtless,  it 
is,  that  the  moral  attributes  of  Deity  are  brought  more  promi- 
nently into  view,  in  the  sacred  volume,  than  his  natural  per- 
fections ;  and  that  those  special  arrangements  of  his  provi- 
dence, which  regard  the  moral  renovation  of  onr  species,  are 
particularly  detailed ;  while  the  immense  extent  of  his  uni- 
versal kingdom,  the  existence  of  other  worlds,  and  their 
moral  economy,  are  but  slightly  hinted  at,  or  veiled  in  ob- 
scurity. Of  such  a  revelation  we  stood  in  need;  and  had  it 
chiefly  embraced  subjects  of  a  very  different  nature,  it  would 
have  failed  in  supplying  the  remedies  requisite  for  correcting 
the  disorders  which  sin  has  introduced  among  mankind.  But 
surely  it  was  never  intended,  even  in  a  religious  point  of  view, 
that  the  powers  of  the  human  mind,  in  their  contemplations 
and  researches,  should  be  bounded  by  the  range  of  subjects 
comprised  in  that  revelation  which  is  purely  or  chiefly  of  a 
moral  nature ;  since  the  Almighty  has  exhibited  so  magnifi- 
cent a  spectacle  in  the  universe  around  us,  and  endowed  us 
with  faculties  adequate  to  the  survey  of  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  its  structure,  and  capable  of  deducing  from  it  the 
most  noble  and  sublime  results.  To  walk  in  the  midst  of  this 
"  wide-extended  theatre,"  and  to  overlook,  or  to  gaze  with  in- 
difference on  those  striking  marks  of  divine  omnipotence 
and  skill  which  every  where  appear,  is  to  overlook  the  Crea- 
tor himself,  and  to  contemn  the  most  illustrious  displays  he 
has  given  of  his  eternal  power  and  glory.  That  man's  reli- 
gious devotions  are  much  to  be  suspected,  whatever  show  of 
piety  he  may  aflect,  who  derives  no  assistance,  in  attempting 
to  form  some  adequate  conceptions  of  the  object  of  his  wor- 
ship, from  the  sublime  discoveries  of  astronomical  science ; 
from  those  myriads  of  suns  and  systems  which  form  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  Creator's  immense  empire  1*     The  pro- 

*  As  some  readers  seem  to  have  mistaken  the  author's  meaning  in  this 
and  similar  passages,  it  may  be  proper  to  state,  that  his  meaning  is  not — 
that  a  knowledge  of  natural  science  is  essential  to  genuine  piety  ;  but,  that 
the  person  who  has  an  opporhaiily  of  making  himself  acquainted  with  the 
scie?ice  of  7iature,   and  of  contemplating  the  wonders  of  the  heavens  in 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

fessing  Christian,  whose  devotional  exercises  are  not  invigo- 
rated, and  whose  conceptions  of  Deity  are  not  expanded,  by 
a  contemplation  of  the  magnitude  and  variety  of  his  works, 
may  be  considered  as  equally  a  stranger  to  the  more  elevated 
strains  of  piety,  and  to  the  noble  emotions  excited  by  a  per- 
ception of  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime. 

"  The  works  of  the  Lord,"  says  an  inspired  writer,  "  are 
great,  and  are  sought  out  by  all  those  who  have  pleasure 
therein."  They  all  bear  the  stamp  of  infinite  perfection,  and 
serve  as  so  many  sensible  mediums  to  exalt  and  expand  our 
conceptions  of  him,  whose  invisible  glories  they  represent 
and  adumbrate.  When  contemplated  in  connexion  with  the 
prospects  opened  by  divine  revelation,  they  tend  to  excite 
the  most  ardent  desires  after  that  state  of  enlarged  vision, 
where  the  plans  and  operations  of  deity  will  be  more  clearly 
unfolded — and  to  prepare  us  for  bearing  a  part  in  the  immor- 
tal hymn  of  the  church  triumphant: — "Great  and  marvellous 
are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty;  just  and  true  are  thy 
ways,  thou  King  of  saints."  The  most  illustrious  characters 
that  have  adorned  our  race  in  all  ages,  have  been  struck  with 
the  beauty  and  magnificence  of  the  visible  creation,  and  have 
devoted  a  certain  portion  of  their  time  and  attention  in  investi- 
gating its  admirable  economy  and  arrangement ;  and  there  can 
be  no  question,  that  a  portion  of  our  thoughts  devoted  to  the 
study  of  the  wondrous  works  of  the  Most  High,  must  ulti- 
mately be  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  our  intellectual 
powers,  to  our  advancement  in  the  Christian  life,  and  to 
our  preparation  for  the  exalted  employments  of  the  eternal 
world. 

In  fine,  since  the  researches  of  modern  times  have  greatly 
enlarged  our  views  of  the  system  of  universal  nature,  and  of 
the  vast  extent  to  which  the  operations  of  the  Creator  are 
carried  on  in  the  distant  regions  of  space, — since  the  late  dis- 
coveries of  naturalists  and  experimental  philosophers,  with 
respect  to  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere,  water,  light, 
heat,  the  gases,  the  electric,  galvanic,  and  magnetic  fluids,  and 
the  economy  and  instincts  of  animated  beings,  have  opened 
to  our  view  a  bright  display  of  divine  wisdom,  in  the  contri- 
vance and  arrangement  of  the  different  parts  of  our  terrestrial 
habitation, — since  improvements  in  the  useful  arts  have  kept 
pace  with  the  progress  of  science,  and  have  been  applied  to 
many  beneficial  purposes,  which  have  ultimately  a  bearing  on 

their  true  light,  and  who  does  not  find  his  views  of  the  Creator  expanded, 
and  his  religious  emotions  elevated,  by  such  studies,  has  reason  to  call  in 
question  the  nature  and  the  sincerity  of  his  devotional  feelings. 


24  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

the  interests  and  the  progress  of  religion, — since  a  general 
desire  to  propagate  the  truths  of  Christianity  in  heathen  lands 
now  animates  the  mass  of  the  religious  world, — since  the 
nations  of  both  continents  are  now  aroused  to  burst  asunder 
the  shackles  of  despotism,  and  to  inquire  after  rational  liberty 
and  mental  improvement, — and  since  all  these  discoveries,  in- 
ventions, and  movements,  and  the  energies  of  the  human 
mind,  from  which  they  spring,  are  under  the  control  and 
direction  of  that  Omnipotent  Being  who  made  and  who 
governs  the  world, — they  ought  to  be  considered  as  parts  of 
those  providential  arrangements,  in  the  progress  of  which  he 
Avill  ultimately  accomplish  the  illumination  of  our  benighted 
race,  and  make  the  cause  of  righteousness  and  truth  to  triumph 
among  all  nations.  And,  therefore,  the  enlightened  Christian 
ought  thankfully  to  appreciate  every  exhibition,  and  every 
discovery,  by  which  his  conceptions  of  the  attributes  of  God, 
and  of  the  grandeur  of  his  works,  may  be  directed  and  en- 
larged, in  order  that  he  may  be  qualified  to  "  speak  of  the 
honour  of  his  majesty,  and  talk  of  his  power;  to  make  known 
to  the  sons  of  men  his  mighty  acts,  and  the  glorious  majesty 
of  his  kingdom. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OF  THE  NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  DEITY,  WITH  PARTICU- 
LAR ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  HIS    OMNIPOTENCE  AND  WISDOM. 

SECTION  I. 

ON  THE  RELATION  OF  THE  NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  DEITY  TO 
RELIGION. 

A  FIRM  conviction  of  the  existence  of  God,  and  a  com- 
petent knowledge  of  his  natural  perfections,  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  religion,  both  natural  and  revealed.  In  proportion 
as  our  views  of  the  perfections  of  Deity  are  limited  and  ob- 
scure, in  a  similar  proportion  will  be  our  conceptions  of  all 
the  relations  in  which  he  stands  to  his  creatures,  of  every  part 
of  his  providential  procedure,  and  of  all  the  doctrines  and  re- 
quirements of  revealed  religion. 

By  the  natural  or  essential  attributes  of  God,  we  understand 
such  perfections  as  the  following: — his  eternity,  omnipre- 
sence, infinite  knowledge,  infinite  wisdom,  omnipotence,  and 


NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  DEITY.  25 

boundless  beneficence.  These  are  the  characters  and  attri- 
butes of  Deity,  which,  we  must  suppose,  form  the  chief  sub- 
jects of  contemplation  to  angels,  and  to  all  other  pure  intelli- 
gences— and,  in  investigating  the  displays  of  which,  the  sons 
of  Adam  would  have  been  chiefly  employed,  had  they  con- 
tinued in  primeval  innocence.  These  attributes  form  the 
groundwork  of  all  those  gracious  relations  in  which  the  God 
of  salvation  stands  to  his  redeemed  people  in  the  economy  of 
redemption — they  lie  at  the  foundation  of  the  whole  Christian 
superstructure — and  were  they  not  recognized  as  the  corner- 
stones of  that  sacred  edifice,  the  whole  system  of  the  Scrip- 
ture revelation  would  remain  a  baseless  fabric.  The  full 
display  of  these  perfections  will  be  exhibited  in  the  future 
world — the  contemplation  of  this  display  will  form  one  of 
the  sublime  employments  "of  the  saints  in  light'' — and  to 
prepare  us  for  engaging  in  such  noble  exercises  is  one  of  the 
chief  designs  of  the  salvation  proclaimed  in  the  Gospel. 

The  Christian  revelation  ought  not  to  be  considered  as 
superseding  the  religion  of  nature,  but  as  carrying  it  forward 
to  perfection.  It  introduces  the  Deity  to  us  under  new  rela- 
tions corresponding  to  the  degraded  state  into  which  we  have 
fallen.  Jt  is  superadded  to  our  natural  relations  to  God,  and 
takes  it  for  granted  that  these  natural  relations  must  for  ever 
subsist.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  essential  attributes  of 
God,  and  the  principles  of  natural  religion,  cannot  be  fully 
discovered  without  the  light  of  revelation,  as  appears  from 
the  past  experience  of  mankind  in  every  generation ;  but  it  is 
equally  true,  that,  when  discovered  by  the  aid  of  this  celestial 
light,  they  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  Christian  sys- 
tem, and  are  as  essentially  connected  with  it,  as  the  founda- 
tion of  a  building  is  with  the  superstructure.  Many  professed 
Christians,  however,  seem  to  think  and  to  act  as  if  the  Chris- 
tian revelation  had  annulled  the  natural  relations  which  subsist 
between  man  and  the  Deity  ;  and  hence  the  zealous  outcry 
against  every  discussion  from  the  pulpit,  that  has  not  a  direct 
relation  to  what  are  termed  the  doctrines  of  grace.  But  no- 
thing surely  can  be  more  absurd,  than  to  carry  out  such  a 
principle  to  all  its  legitimate  consequences.  Can  God  ever 
cease  to  be  omnipotent,  or  can  man  ever  cease  to  be  dependent 
for  existence  on  his  infinite  power?  Can  the  Divine  Being 
ever  cease  to  be  omnipresent  and  omniscient,  or  can  man  ever 
cease  to  be  the  object  of  his  knowledge  and  superintendence? 
Can  infinite  wisdom  ever  be  detaclied  from  the  Almighty,  or 
ran  man  ever  be  in  a  situation  where  he  will  not  experience 
the  efiects  of  his  wise  arrangements  ?    Can  goodness  ever  fail 


26 


CHRISTIAX  PHILOSOPHER. 


of  being  an  attribute  of  Jehovah,  or  can  any  sentient  or  intel- 
Ifg-eni  beings  exi.st  that  do  not  experience  the  effects  of  his 
bouiUy?  ]n  ghoit,  can  the  relation  oi  creature  and  o^  creator 
ever  cease  between  the  human  race,  in  whatever  moral  or 
physical  situation  they  may  be  placed,  and  that  Almighty 
Being-  '•'•  who  giveth  to  all  life  and  breath  and  all  things!"  I'i 
none  of  these  things  can  possibly  happen,  then  the  relations 
to  which  we  refer  mnst  be  eternal  and  unchangeable,  and  must 
form  the  basis  of  all  the  other  relations  in  which  we  can  pos- 
sibly stand  to  the  Divine  Being,  either  as  apostate  or  as  re- 
deemed creatures;  and,  therefore,  they  ought  to  be  exhibited 
as  subjects  for  our  frequent  and  serious  contemplation,  as  re- 
ligious and  mora!  agents.  But,  unless  we  make  such  topics 
a  distinct  subject  of  attention,  and  endeavour  to  acquire  clear 
and  comprehensive  conceptions  of  our  natural  relations  to 
God,  we  can  never  form  a  clear  conception  of  those  new  and 
interesting  relations  into  which  we  have  been  brought  by  the 
mediation  of  Jesus  Christ. 

If  man  had  continued  in  his  primitive  state  of  integrity,  he 
would  have  been  for  ever  exercised  in  tracing  the  power,  the 
beneiicence,  and  other  attributes  of  Deity,  in  the  visible  crea- 
tion alone.  Now  that  his  fallen  state  has  rendered  additional 
revelations  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  his  happiness, — is  he 
completely  to  throw  aside  those  contemplations  and  exercises 
which  constituted  his  chief  employment  wiiile  he  remained  a 
pure  moral  intelligence  }  Surely  not.  One  great  end  of  his 
moral  renovation,  by  means  of  the  Gospel,  must  be  to  enable 
him  to  resume  his  primitive  exercises^  and  to  qualify  him  for 
more  enlarged  views  and  contemplations  of  a  similar  nature, 
in  that  future  world,  where  the  physical  and  moral  impedi- 
ments which  now  obstruct  his  progress  will  be  completely 
removed. 

Jt  appears  highly  unreasonable,  and  indicates  a  selfish  dis- 
position of  mind,  to  magnify  one  class  of  the  divine  attributes  at 
the  expense  of  another ;  to  extol,  for  example,  the  mercy  of 
God,  and  neglect  to  celebrate  his  power  and  wisdom — those 
glorious  perfections,  the  display  of  which,  at  the  formation 
of  our  globe,  excited  the  rapture  and  admiration  of  angels, 
and  of  innocent  men.  All  the  attributes  of  God  are  equals 
because  all  of  them  are  infinite-  and  tlierefore  to  talk  of  dar- 
ling attributes  in  the  divine  nature,  as  some  have  done,  is  in- 
consistent with  reason,  unwarranted  by  Scripture,  and  tends 
to  exhibit  a  distorted  view  of  the  divine  character.  The  divine 
mercy  ought  to  be  celebrated  with  rapture  by  every  individual 
of  our  fallen  race ;  but  with  no  less  rapture  should  we  extol 


NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  DEITY.  27 

the  divine  omnipotence ;  (at  the  designs  of  mercy  cannot  be 
accomplished  without  the  intervention  of  infinite  power.  Even 
the  attribute  of^  justice^  which  is  frequently  viewed  with  emo- 
tions of  terror,  is  nothing  else  than  a  branch  of  the  divine 
benevolence  for  preventing  the  inroads  of  anarchy  and  con- 
fusion, and  for  securing  the  order  and  happiness  of  the  intel- 
ligent creation.  All  that  we  hope  for,  in  consequence  of  the 
promises  of  God,  and  of  the  redemption  accomplished  by 
Jesus  Christ,  must  be  founded  on  the  conception  we  form  of 
the  operations  of  Omnipotence.  An  example  or  two  may  not 
be  unnecessary  for  illustrating  this  position. 

We  are  warranted,  by  the  sacred  oracles,  to  entertain  the 
hope,  that  these  mortal  bodies  of  ours,  after  they  have  moul- 
dered in  the  dust,  been  dissolved  into  their  primary  elementary 
parts,  and  become  the  prey  of  devouring  reptiles,  during  a 
lapse  of  generations  or  centuries — shall  spring  forth  from  the 
tomb  to  new  life  and  beauty,  and  be  arrayed  in  more  glorious 
forms  than  they  now  wear;  yea,  that  all  the  inhabitants  of 
our  globe,  from  Adam  to  the  end  of  time,  though  the  bodies 
of  thousands  of  them  have  been  devoured  by  cannibals,  have 
become  the  food  of  fishes  and  of  beasts  of  prey,  and  have 
been  burnt  to  cinders,  and  their  ashes  scattered  by  the  winds 
over  the  different  regions  of  sea  and  land — shall  be  reanimated 
by  the  voice  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  shall  appear,  each  in  his 
own  proper  person  and  identical  body,  before  God,  the  Judge 
of  all.  Now,  the  firmness  of  our  hope  of  so  astonishing  an 
event,  which  seems  to  contradict  all  experience,  and  appears 
involved  in  such  a  mass  of  difficulties  and  apparent  contra- 
dictions, must  be  in  proportion  to  the  sentiments  we  entertain 
of  the  divine  intelligence,  wisdom,  and  omnipotence.  And 
where  are  we  to  find  the  most  striking  visible  displays  of 
these  perfections,  except  in  the  actual  operations  of  the  Creator, 
within  the  range  of  our  view  in  the  material  world. 

Again,  we  are  informed  in  the  same  divine  records,  that,  at 
some  future  period,  the  earth  on  which  we  now  dwell  shall 
be  wrapt  up  in  devouring  flames,  and  its  present  form  and 
constituiion  for  ever  destroyed;  that  its  redeemed  inhabitants, 
after  being  released  from  the  grave,  shall  be  transported  to  a 
more  glorious  region;  and  that  "new  heavens  and  a  new 
earth  shall  appear,  wherein  dwelieth  righteousness."  Ti:  ■ 
divine  mercy  having  given  to  the  faithful  the  promise  of  liie  ■ 
astonishing  revoluiions,  and  most  inHgnificent  events,  >y:rc 
hopes  of  rheir  being  fully  realized  must  rest  on  the  iiiiiiuie 
wisdom  and  omnipotence  of  Jehovah  ;  and  consf^quentlv,  if 
our  views  of  these  perfections   be  limited  and  obscure,  our 


28  CHIIISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

lio])e,  in  rehition  to  our  future  destiny,  will  be  proportionably 
feeble  and  languid ;  and  will  scarcely  perform  its  ofRce  "  as 
an  anchor  to  the  soul,  both  sure  and  steadfast,"  It  is  not 
merely  by  telling  a  person  that  God  is  all-wise  and  all-power- 
ful, that  a  full  conviction  of  the  accomplishment  of  such 
grand  events  will  be  produced.  He  must  be  made  to  see  with 
his  own  eyes  what  the  Almighty  has  already  dojie,  and  what 
lie  is  now  doing,  in  all  the  regions  of  universal  nature  which 
lie  open  to  our  inspection  ;  and  this  cannot  be  effected  without 
directing  his  contemplations  to  those  displays  of  intelligence 
and  power  which  are  exhibited  in  the  structure,  the  economy, 
and  the  revolutions  of  the  material  world. 

If  the  propriety  of  these  sentiments  be  admitted,  it  will 
follow,  that  the  more  we  are  accustomed  to  contemplate  the 
wonders  of  divine  intelligence  and  power,  in  the  objects  with 
which  we  are  surrounded,  the  more  deeply  shall  we  be  im- 
pressed with  a  conviction,  and  a  confident  hope,  that  all  the 
purposes  of  divine  mercy  will  ultimately  be  accomplished  in 
our  eternal  felicity.  It  will  also  follow,  that,  in  proportion 
as  the  mind  acquires  a  clear,  an  extensive,  and  a  reverential 
view  of  the  essential  attributes  of  the  Deity,  and  of  those 
truths  in  connexion  with  them,  which  are  objects  of  contem- 
plation common  to  all  holy  beings,  in  a  similar  proportion 
will  it  be  impressed,  and  its  attention  arrested,  by  every  other 
divine  subject  connected  with  them.  And  it  is,  doubtless, 
owing  to  the  want  of  such  clear  and  impressive  conceptions 
of  the  essential  character  of  Jehovah,  and  of  the  first  truths 
of  religion,  that  the  bulk  of  mankind  are  so  little  impressed 
and  influenced  by  the  leading  doctrines  and  duties  connected 
with  the  plan  of  the  Gospel  salvation,  and  that  they  entertain 
so  many  vague  and  untenable  notions  respecting  the  character 
and  the  objects  of  a  superintending  Providence.  How  often, 
for  example,  have  we  witnessed  expressions  of  the  foolish 
and  limited  notions  which  are  frequently  entertained  respect- 
ing the  operations  of  Omnipotence  !  When  it  has  been  assert- 
ed that  the  earth,  with  its  load  of  continents  and  oceans,  is  in 
rapid  motion  through  the  voids  of  space — that  the  sun  is  ten 
hundred  thousand  times  larger  than  the  terraqueous  globe — and 
that  millions  of  such  globes  are  dispersed  throughout  the 
immensity  of  nature, — some  who  have  viewed  themselves  as 
enlightened  Christians,  have  exclaimed  at  the  impossibility  of 
such  facts,  as  if  they  were  beyond  the  limits  of  divine  power, 
and  as  if  such  representations  were  intended  to  turn  away  the 
mind  from  God  and  religion  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  they 
have  yielded  a  firm  assent  to  all  die  vulgar  notions  respecting 


NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  DEITY.  29 

omens,  apparitions,  and  hobgoblins,  and  to  the  supposed  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  tlie  professors  of  divination  and  witch- 
craft. How  can  such  persons  assent,  with  intelligence  and 
rational  conviction,  to  the  dictates  of  revelation  respecting  the 
energies  of  Omnipotence  which  will  be  exerted  at  '^  the  con- 
summation of  all  things,  and  in  those  arrangements  which  are 
to  succeed  the  dissolution  of  our  sublunary  system  ?  A  firm 
belief  in  the  almighty  power  and  unsearchable  wisdom  of 
God,  as  displayed  in  the  constitution  and  movements  of  the 
material  world,  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  to  confirm  our 
faith,  and  enliven  our  hopes  of  such  grand  and  interesting 
events. 

Notwithstanding  the  considerations  now  stated,  which 
plainly  evince  the  connexion  of  the  natural  perfections  of 
God  with  the  objects  of  the  Christian  revelation,  it  appears 
somewhat  strange  that,  when  certain  religious  instructers  hap- 
pen to  come  in  contact  with  this  topic,  they  seem  as  if  they 
were  beginning  to  tread  upon  forbidden  ground  ;  and  as  if  it 
were  unsuitable  to  their  office  as  Christian  teachers,  to  bring 
forward  the  stupendous  works  of  the  Almighty  to  illustrate 
his  nature  and  attributes.  Instead  of  expatiating  on  the  nume- 
rous sources  of  illustration  which  the  subject  admits,  till  the 
minds  of  their  hearers  are  thoroughly  affected  with  a  view  of 
the  essential  glory  of  Jehovah — they  despatch  the  subject  with 
two  or  three  vague  propositions,  which,  though  logically  true, 
make  no  impression  upon  the  heart;  as  if  they  believed  that 
such  contemplations  were  suited  only  to  carnal  men,  and 
mere  philosophers ;  and  as  if  they  were  afraid,  lest  the  sanc- 
tity of  the  pulpit  should  be  polluted  by  particular  descriptions 
of  those  operations  of  the  Deity  which  are  perceived  through 
the  medium  of  the  corporeal  senses.  We  do  not  mean  to  in- 
sinuate, that  the  essential  attributes  of  God,  and  the  illustra- 
tions of  them  derived  from  the  material  world,  should  form 
the  sole  or  the  chief  topics  of  discussion,  in  the  business  of 
religious  instruction  :  but,  if  the  Scriptures  frequently  direct 
our  attention  to  these  subjects — if  they  lie  at  the  foundation 
of  all  accurate  and  extensive  views  of  the  Christian  revela- 
tion— if  they  be  the  chief  subjects  of  contemplation  to  angels, 
and  all  other  pure  intelligences,  in  every  region  of  the  uni- 
verse— and  if  they  have  a  tendency  to  expand  the  minds  of 
professed  Christians,  to  correct  their  vague  and  erroneous 
conceptions,  and  to  promote  their  conformity  to  the  moral 
character  of  God — we  cannot  find  out  the  shadow  of  a  reason, 
why  such  topics  should  be  almost,  if  not  altogether  over- 
looked, in  the  writings  and  the  discourses  of  those  who  pro- 

3* 


30      •  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOniER. 

fess  to  instruct  mankind  in  the  knowledge  of  God  and  the 
duties  of  his  worship. 

We  are  informed  by  our  Saviour  himself,  that  "  this  is  life 
eternal,  to  know  thee  the  living  and  true  God,"  as  well  as 
*' Jesus  Christ  whom  he  hath  sent."  The  knowledge  of  God, 
in  the  sense  here  intended,  must  include  in  it  the  knowdedge 
of  the  natural  and  essential  attributes  of  the  Deity,  or  those 
properties  of  his  nature  by  which  he  is  distinguished  from  all 
"  the  idols  of  the  nations."  Such  are  his  self-existence,  his 
all-perfect  knowledge,  his  omnipresence,  his  infinite  wisdom, 
his  boundless  goodness,  and  almighty  power — attributes  which, 
as  we  have  just  now  seen,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  the 
other  characters  and  relations  of  Deity  revealed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  acquisition  of  just  and  comprehensive  concep- 
tions of  those  perfections,  must  therefore  lie  at  the  foundation 
of  all  profound  veneration  of  the  Divine  Being,  and  of  all 
that  is  valuable  in  religion.  Destitute  of  such  conceptions, 
we  can  neither  feel  that  habitual  humility^  and  that  reverence, 
of  tlie  majesty  of  Jehovah,  which  his  essential  glory  is  cal- 
culated to  inspire,  nor  pay  him  that  tribute  of  adoration  and 
gratitude  which  is  due  to  his  name.  Devoid  of  such  views, 
we  cannot  exercise  that  cordial  acquiescence  in  the  plan  of  his 
redemption,  in  the  arrangement  of  his  providence,  and  in  the 
requirements  of  his  law,  which  the  Scriptures  enjoin.  Yet, 
how  often  do  we  find  persons  who  pretend  to  speculate  about 
the  mysteries  of  the  Gospel,  displaying — by  their  flippancy 
of  speech  respecting  the  eternal  counsels  of  the  Majesty  of 
heaven — by  their  dogmatical  assertions  respecting  the  divine 
character,  and  the  dispensations  of  Providence — and  by  their 
pertinacious  opinions  respecting  the  law^s  by  which  God  must 
regulate  his  own  actions — that  they  have  never  felt  impressive 
emotions  of  the  grandeur  of  that  Being,  whose  "  operations 
are  unsearchable,  and  his  ways  past  finding  out!"  Though 
they  do  not  call  in  question  his  immensity  and  power,  his 
wisdom  and  goodness,  as  so  many  abstract  properties  of  his 
nature,  yet,  the  unbecoming  familiarity  with  which  they  ap- 
])roach  this  august  Being,  and  talk  about  him,  shows  diat  they 
have  never  associated  in  their  minds,  the  stupendous  displays 
wliicli  iiave  been  given  of  these  perfections,  in  the  works  of 
his  hands;  and  that  their  religion  (if  it  may  be  so  called) 
consists  meiely  in  a  farrago  of  abstract  opinions,  or  in  an 
empty  name. 

If,  then,  it  be  admitted,  that  it  is  essentially  requisite,  as  tlie 
foundation  of  religion,  to  have  the  mind  deeply  impressed  with 
a  clear  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  natural  perfections  of 


NATURAL  ATTRIBUTES  OF  THE  DEITY.  31 

the  Deity,  it  will  follow  that  the  ministers  of  religion,  and  all 
others  whose  province  it  is  to  communicate  religious  instruc- 
tion, ought  frequently  to  dwell,  with  particularity,  on  those 
proofs  and  illustrations  which  tend  to  convey  the  most  definite 
and  impressive  conceptions  of  the  glory  of  that  Being  whom 
we  profess  to  adore.  But  from  what  sources  are  such  illus- 
trations to  be  derived  .?  Is  it  from  abstract  reasonings  and 
metaphysical  distinctions  and  definitions,  or  from  a  survey  of 
those  objects  and  movements  which  lie  open  to  the  inspection 
of  every  observer  ?  There  can  be  no  difhculty  in  coming  to 
a  decision  on  this  point.  We  might  affirm,  with  the  school- 
men, that  "  God  is  a  Being  whose  centre  is  every  where,  and 
his  circumference  no  where ;"  that  "  he  comprehends  infinite 
duration  in  every  moment;  and  that  "infinite  space  may  be 
considered  as  the  sensorium  of  the  Godhead ;"  but  such  fan- 
ciful illustrations,  when  strictly  analyzed,  will  be  found  to 
consist  merely  of  words  without  ideas.  We  might  also  affirm, 
with  truth,  that  God  is  a  Being  of  infinite  perfection,  glory, 
and  blessedness — that  he  is  without  all  bounds  or  limits,  either 
actual  or  possible — that  he  is  possessed  of  power  sufficient  to 
perform  all  things  which  do  not  imply  a  contradiction — that 
he  is  independent  and  self-sufficient — that  his  wisdom  is  un- 
erring, and  that  he  infinitely  exceeds  all  other  beings.  But 
these,  and  other  expressions  of  a  similar  kind,  are  mere  tech- 
nical terms.,  which  convey  no  adequate,  nor  even  tolerable 
notion  of  what  they  import.  Beings,  constituted  like  man, 
whose  rational  spirits  are  connected  with  an  organical  struc- 
ture, and  who  derive  all  their  knowledge  through  the  medium 
of  corporeal  organs,  can  derive  their  clearest  and  most  affecting 
notions  of  the  Divinity,  chiefly  through  the  same  medium; 
namely,  by  contemplating  the  effects  of  his  perfections,  as 
displayed  through  the  ample  range  of  the  visible  creation. 
And  to  this  source  of  illustration,  the  inspired  writers  uni- 
formly direct  our  views — "  Lift  up  your  eyes  on  high,  and 
behold  !  who  hath  created  these  orbs  ?  who  bringeth  forth 
their  host  by  number,  and  calleth  them  all  by  their  names  ? 
The  everlasting  God,  the  Lord,  by  the  greatness  of  his  might, 
for  that  he  is  strong  in  power," — "  He  hath  made  the  earth  by 
his  power ;  he  hath  established  the  world  by  his  wisdom  ;  he 
hath  stretched  out  the  heavens  by  his  understanding."  These 
writers  do  not  perplex  our  minds  by  a  multitude  of  technical 
terms  and  subtile  reasonings;  but  lead  us  directly  to  the 
source  wlienceour  most  ample  conceptions  of  Deity  are  to  be 
derived,  that,  from  a  steady  and  enlightened  contemplation  of 
the  effects,  we  may  learn  the  greatness  of  the  Cause  ;  and 


32  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

their  example  in  this  respect  ought,  doubtless,  to  be  a  pattern 
for  every  religious  instructer- 

SECTION  11. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE   OMNIPOTENCE  OF   THE  DEITY. 

fN  order  to  elucidate  more  distinctly  what  has  been  now 
stated,  I  shall  select  a  few  illustrations  of  some  of  the  natural 
attributes  of  the  Deity.  And,  in  the  first  place,  I  shall  offer  a 
few  considerations  which  have  a  tendency  to  direct  and  to 
amplify  our  conceptions  of  divine  powder. 

Omnipotence  is  that  attribute  of  the  Divine  Being,  by  which 
he  can  accomplish  every  thing  that  does  not  imply  a  contra- 
diction— however  far  it  may  transcend  the  comprehension  of 
finite  minds.  By  his  power  the  vast  system  of  universal 
nature  was  called  from  nothing  into  existence,  and  is  con- 
tinually supported  in  all  its  movements,  from  age  to  age.  In 
elucidating  this  perfection  of  God,  we  might  derive  some 
striking  illustrations  from  the  records  of  his  dispensations  to- 
wards man,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world — when  he  over- 
Avhelmed  the  earth  with  a  deluge,  which  covered  the  tops  of 
the  highest  mountains,  and  swept  the  crowded  population  of 
the  ancient  world  into  a  watery  grave — when  he  demolished 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  the  cities  around  them,  with  fire 
from  heaven — when  he  slew  all  the  first-born  of  Egypt,  and 
turned  their  rivers  into  blood — when  he  divided  the  Red  sea, 
and  the  waters  of  Jordan,  before  the  tribes  of  Israel — when  he 
made  the  earth  open  its  jaws  and  swallow  up  Korah  and  all 
his  com.pany — and  when  he  caused  mount  Sinai  to  smoke  and 
tremble  at  liis  presence.  But  these  and  similar  events,  how- 
ever awful,  astonishing,  and  worthy  of  remembrance,  were 
only  transitory  exertions  of  divine  power,  and  are  not  calculated 
and  were  never  intended,  to  impress  the  mind  in  so  powerful 
a  manner  as  those  displays  of  omnipotence  which  are  exhibited 
in  the  ordinary  movements  -of  the  material  universe.  We 
have  no  hesitation  in  assertmg,  that,  with  regard  to  this  attri- 
bute of  the  Divinity,  there  is  a  more  grand  and  impressive 
display  in  the  works  of  nature,  than  in  all  the  events  recorded 
in  the  sacred  history.  Nor  ought  this  remark  to  be  considered 
as  throwing  the  least  refiection  on  the  fulness  and  sufficiency 
of  the  Scripture  revelation;  for  that  revelation,  as  having  a 
special  reference  to  a  moral  economy,  has  for  its  object  to 
give  a  more  particular  display  of  the  moral  than  of  the  natural 
perfections  of  God.     The  miracles  to  which  we  have  now  re- 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  33 

ferred,  and  every  other  supernatural  fact  recorded  in  the  Bible, 
were  not  intended  so  much  to  display  the  plenitude  of  the 
power  of  the  Deity,  as  to  bear  testimony  to  the  divine  mis- 
sion of  particular  messengers,  and  to  confirm  the  truths  they 
declared.  It  was  not,  for  example,  merely  to  display  the 
energies  of  almighty  power,  that  the  waters  of  the  Red  sea 
were  dried  up  before  the  thousands  of  Israel,  but  to  give  a 
solemn  and  striking  attestation  to  all  concerned,  that  the  most 
high  God  had  taken  this  people  under  his  peculiar  protection 
— that  he  had  appointed  Moses  as  their  leader  and  legislator — ■ 
and  that  they  were  bound  to  receive  and  obey  the  statutes  he 
delivered.  The  most  appropriate  and  impressive  illustrations 
of  omnipotence  are  those  which  are  taken  from  the  perma- 
nejit  operations  of  Deity,  which  are  visible  every  moment  in 
the  universe  around  us ;  or,  in  other  words,  those  which  are 
derived  from  a  detail  of  the  facts  which  have  been  observed 
in  the  material  world,  respecting  magnitude  and  motion. 

Jn  the  first  place,  the  immense  quantify  of  matter  contained 
in  the  universe  presents  a  most  striking  display  of  Almighty 
power. 

Jn  endeavouring  to  form  a  definite  notion  on  this  subject, 
the  mind  is  bewildered  in  its  conceptions,  and  is  at  a  loss 
where  to  begin  or  to  end  its  excursions.  In  order  to  fuiin 
something  approximating  to  a  well  defined  idea,  we  mur>t 
pursue  a  train  of  thought  commencing  with  those  magnitudes 
which  the  mind  can  easily  grasp,  proceeding  through  all  the 
hiffher  o-radations  of  magnitude,  and  fixino-  the  attention  on 
every  portion  of  the  chain,  till  we  arrive  at  the  object  or  mag- 
nitude of  which  we  wish  to  form  a  conception.  We  must 
endeavour,  in  the  first  place,  to  form  a  conception  of  the  bulk 
of  the  world  in  which  we  dwell,  which,  though  only  a  point 
in  comparison  of  the  whole  material  universe,  is,  in  reality,  a 
most  astonishing  magnitude,  which  the  mind  cannot  grasp 
without  a  laborious  effort.  We  can  form  some  definite  idea 
of  those  protuberan*t  masses  we  denominate  hills^  which  rise 
above  the  surface  of  our  plains  ;  but  were  we  transported  to 
the  mountainous  scenery  of  Switzerland,  to  the  stupendous 
range  of  the  Andes  in  South  America,  or  to  the  Himalayan 
mountains  in  India,  where  masses  of  earth  and  rocks,  in  every 
variety  of  shape,  extend  several  hundreds  of  miles  in  different 
directions,  and  rear  their  projecting  summits  beyond  the 
region  of  the  clouds — we  should  find  some  difficulty  in  form- 
ing an  adequate  conception  of  the  objects  of  our  contempla- 
tion. For,  (to  use  the  words  of  one  who  had  been  a  specta- 
tor of  such  scenes,)  "  Amidst  those  trackless  regions  of  intense 


34  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

silence  and  solitude,  we  cannot  contemplate,  but  with  feelings 
of  awe  and  admiration,  the  enormous  masses  of  variegated 
matter  which  lie  around,  beneath,  and  above  us.  The  mind 
labours,  as  it  were,  to  form  a  definite  idea  of  those  objects  of 
oppressive  grandeur,  and  feels  unable  to  grasp  the  august  ob- 
jects which  compose  the  surrounding  scene."  But  what  are 
all  these  mountainous  masses,  however  variegated  and  sublime, 
when  compared  with  the  bulk  of  the  whole  earth!  AVere 
they  hurled  from  their  bases,  and  precipitated  into  the  vast 
Pacific  Ocean,  they  would  all  disappear  in  a  moment,  except 
perhaps  a  few  projecting  tops,  which,  like  a  number  of  small 
islands,  might  be  seen  rising  a  few  fathoms  above  the  surface 
of  the  waters. 

The  earth  is  a' globe,  whose  diameter  is  nearly  eight  thou- 
sand miles,  and  its  circumference  about  twenty-five  thousand, 
and  consequently,  its  surface  contains  nearly  two  hundred 
millions  of  square  miles — a  magnitude  too  great  for  the  mind 
to  take  in  at  one  conception.  In  order  to  form  a  tolerable 
conception  of  the  whole,  M'e  must  endeavour  to  take  a  leisurely 
survey  of  its  different  parts.  Were  we  to  take  our  station  on 
the  top  of  a  mountain,  of  a  moderate  size,  and  survey  the 
surrounding  landscape,  we  should  perceive  an  extent  of  view 
gtreiching  forty  miles  in  every  direction,  forming  a  circle 
eiirhty  miles  in  diameter,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  in  cir- 
cuiiiference,  and  comprehending  an  area  of  five  thousand 
square  miles.  In  such  a  situation,  the  terrestrial  scene  around 
and  beneath  us,  consisting  of  hills  and  plains,  towns  and  vil- 
lages, rivers  and  lakes — would  form  one  of  the  largest  objects 
M'hich  the  eye,  or  even  the  imagination,  can  steadily  grasp  at 
one  time.  But  such  an  object,  grand  and  extensive  as  it  is, 
forms  no  more  than  the  forty  thousandth  part  of  the  terraque- 
ous globe;  so  that,  before  we  can  acquire  an  adequate  con- 
ception of  the  magnitude  of  our  own  world,  we  must  conceive 
forty  thousand  landscapes,  of  a  simildr  extent,  to  pass  in  re- 
view before  us;  and,  were  a  scene,  ofihe  magnitude  now 
stated,  to  pass  before  us  every  hour,  till  all  the  diversified 
scenery  of  the  earth  were  brought  under  our  view,  and  were 
twelve  hours  a-day  allotted  for  the  observation,  it  would  re- 
quire nine  years  and  forty-eight  days  before  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  globe  could  be  contemplated,  even  in  this  general 
and  rapid  manner.  But,  such  a  variety  of  successive  land- 
scapes passing  before  the  eye,  even  although  it  were  possible 
to  be  realized,  would  convey  only  a  very  vague  and  imper- 
fect conception  of  the  scenery  of  our  world  ;  for  objects  at 
the  distance  of  forty  miles  cannot  be  distinctly  perceived  ;  the 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  35 

only  view  which  would  be  satisfactory,  would  be  that  which 
is  comprehended  widiin  the  range  of  three  or  four  miles  from 
the  spectator. 

Again,  I  have  already  stated,  that  the  surface  of  the  earth 
contains  nearly  200,000,000  of  square  miles.  Now,  were  a 
person  to  set  out  on  a  minute  survey  of  the  terraqueous 
globe,  and  to  travel  till  he  passed  along  every  square  mile  on 
its  surface,  and  to  continue  his  route  without  intermission,  at 
the  rate  of  thirty  miles  every  day,  it  would  require  18,264 
years  before  he  coidd  finish  his  tour,  and  complete  the  survey 
of  "  this  huge  rotundity  on  which  we  tread :"  so  that,  had  he 
commenced  his  excursion  on  the  day  in  which  Adam  was 
created,  and  continued  it  to  the  present  hour,  he  would  not 
have  accomplished  one-third  part  of  this  vast  tour. 

In  estimating  the  size  and  extent  of  the  earth,  we  ought 
also  to  take  into  consideration,  the  vast  variety  of  objects 
with  which  it  is  diversified,  and  the  numerous  animated  be- 
ings with  which  it  is  stored  ; — the  great  divisions  of  land  and 
water,  the  continents,  seas,  and  islands,  into  which  it  is  distri- 
buted ;  the  lofty  ranges  of  mountains  which  rear  their  heads 
to  the  clouds  ;  the  unfathomable  abysses  of  the  ocean  ;  its 
vast  subterraneous  caverns  and  burning  mountains;  and  the 
lakes,  rivers,  and  stately  forests,  with  which  it  is  so  magnifi- 
cently adorned; — the  many  millions  of  animals,  of  every 
size  and  form,  from  the  elephant  to  the  mite,  which  traverse 
its  surface;  the  numerous  tribes  of  fishes,  from  the  enormous 
whale  to  the  diminutive  shrimp,  which  "play"  in  the  mighty 
ocean;  the. aerial  tribes  which  sport  in  the  regions  above  us^ 
and  the  vast  mass  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  which  en- 
closes the  earth  and  all  its  inhabitants,  as  "  with  a  swaddling 
band."  The  immense  variety  of  beings  with  which  our  ter- 
restrial habitation  is  furnished,  conspires,  with  every  other 
consideration,  to  exalt  our  conceptions  of  that  Power  by 
wliich  our  globe,  and  all  that  it  contains,  were  brought  into 
existence. 

The  preceding  illustrations,  however,  exhibit  the  vast  ex- 
tent of  the  earth,  considered  only  as  a  mere  superficies. 
But  we  know  that  the  earth  is  a  solid  globe,  whose  specific 
gravity  is  nearly  five  times  denser  than  water,  or  about  twice 
as  dense  as  the  mass  of  eardi  and  rocks  which  compose  its 
surface.  Though  we  cannot  dig  into  its  bowels  beyond  a 
mile  in  perpendicular  depth,  to  explore  its  hidden  wonders, 
and  yet  we  may  easily  conceive  what  a  vast  and  indescribable 
mass  of  matter  must  be  contained  between  the  two  opposite 
portions  of  its  external  circumference,  reaching  eight  thousand 


36  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

miles  in  every  direction.  The  solid  contents  of  this  ponder- 
ous ball  is  no  less  than  263,858,149,120  cubical  miles — a  mass 
of  material  substance  of  which  we  can  form  but  a  very  faint 
and  imperfect  conception  :  in  proportion  to  which,  all  the  lofty 
mountains  which  rise  above  its  surface,  are  less  than  a  few 
grains  of  sand,  when  compared  with  the  largest  arthicial  globe. 
Were  the  earth  a  hollow  sphere,  surrounded  merely  with 
an  external  shell  of  earth  and  water  ten  miles  thick,  its  inter- 
nal cavity  would  be  sufficient  to  contain  a  quantity  of  mate- 
rials one  hundred  and  thirty-three  times  greater  than  the  whole 
mass  of  continents,  islands,  and  oceans,  on  its  surface,  and 
the  foundations  on  which  they  are  supported.  We  have  the 
strongest  reasons,  however,  to  conclude,  that  the  earth,  in  its 
general  structure,  is  one  solid  mass,  from  the  surface  to  the 
centre,  excepting,  perhaps,  a  few  caverns  scattered  here  and 
there  amidst  its  subterraneous  recesses;  and  that  its  density 
gradually  increases  from  its  surface  to  its  central  regions. 
What  an  enormous  mass  of  materials,  then,  is  comprehended 
within  the  limits  of  that  globe  on  which  we  tread !  The 
mind  labours,  as  it  were,  to  comprehend  the  mighty  idea,  and, 
after  all  its  exertion,  feels  itself  unable  to  take  in  such  an 
astonishing  magnitude  at  one  comprehensive  grasp.  How 
great  must  be  the  power  of  that  Being  who  commanded  it  to 
spring  from  nothing  into  existence,  who  "  measures  the 
ocean  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  who  wcigheth  the  moun- 
tains in  scales,  and  hangeth  the  earth  upon  nothing !" 

It  is  essentially  requisite,  before  proceeding  to  the  survey 
of  objects  and  magnitudes  of  a  superior  order,  that  we  should 
endeavour,  by  such  a  train  of  thought  as  the  preceding,  to 
form  some  tolerable  and  clear  conception  of  the  bulk  of  the 
globe  we  inhabit ;  for  it  is  the  only  body  we  can  use  as  a 
standard  of  comparison  to  guide  the  mind  in  its  conceptions, 
when  it  roams  abroad  to  other  regions  of  material  existence. 
And  from  what  has  been  now  stated,  it  appears,  that  we  have 
no  adequate  conception  of  a  magnitude  of  so  vast  an  extent; 
or  at  least,  that  the  mind  cannot,  in  any  one  instant,  form  to 
itself  a  distinct  and  comprehensive  idea  of  it,  in  any  measure 
corresponding  to  the  reality. 

Hitherto,  then,  we  have  fixed  only  on  a  determinate  mag- 
nitude— on  a  scale  of  a  few  inches,  as  it  were,  in  order  to 
assist  us  in  our  measurement  and  conception  of  magnitudes 
still  more  august  and  astonishing.  When  we  contemplate, 
by  the  light  of  science,  those  magnificent  globes  which  float 
around  us  in  the  concave  of  the  sky,  the  earth,  \\\i\\  all  its 
sublime  scenery,  stupendous  as  it  is,  dwindles  into  an  incon- 


OMNIPOTEXCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  37 

siderable  ball.  If  we  pass  from  our  globe  to  some  of  the 
other  bodies  of  the  planetary  system,  we  shall  find  that  one 
of  these  stupendous  orbs  is  more  than  nine  hundred  times  the 
size  of  our  world,  and  encircled  with  a  ring  two  hundred 
thousand  miles  in  diameter,  which  would  nearly  reach  from 
the  earth  to  the  moon,  and  would  enclose  within  its  vast  cir- 
cumference several  hundreds  of  worlds  as  large  as  ours.  An- 
other of  these  planetary  bodies,  which  appears  to  the  vulgar 
eye  only  as  a  brilliant  speck  on  the  vault  of  heaven,  is  found 
to  be  of  such  a  size,  that  it  would  require  fourteen  hundred 
globes  of  the  bulk  of  the  earth  to  form  one  equal  to  it  in 
dimensions.  The  whole  of  the  bodies  which  compose  the  solar 
system  (without  taking  the  sun  and  the  comets  into  account) 
contain  a  mass  of  matter  twenty-five  hundred  times  greater 
than  that  of  the  earth.  The  sun  itself  is  five  hundred  and 
twenty  times  larger  than  all  the  planetary  globes  taken  to- 
gether; and  one  million  three  hundred  thousand  times  larger 
than  the  terraqueous  globe.  This  is  one  of  the  most  glorious 
and  magnificent  visible  objects  which  either  the  eye  or  the 
imagination  can  contemplate ;  especially  when  we  consider, 
what  perpetual,  and  incomprehensible,  and  powerful  influence 
it  exerts — what  warmth,  and  beauty,  and  activity  it  diffuses, 
not  only  on  the  globe  we  inhabit,  but  over  the  more  extensive 
regions  of  surrounding  worlds.  Its  energy  extends  to  the 
utmost  limits  of  the  planetary  system — to  the  planet  Herschel 
which  revolves  at  the  distance  of  eighteen  hundred  millions 
of  miles  from  its  surface,  and  there  it  dispenses  light,  and 
colour,  and  comfort,  to  all  the  beings  connected  with  that  far 
distant  orb,  and  to  all  the  moons  which  roll  around  it. 

Here  the  imagination  begins  to  be  overpowered  and  be- 
Avildered  in  its  conceptions  of  magnitude,  when  it  has  advanced 
scarcely  a  single  step  in  its  excursions  through  the  material 
world.  For  it  is  higldy  probable,  that  all  the  matter  contain- 
ed within  the  limits  of  the  solar  system,  incomprehensible  as 
its  magnitude  appears,  bears  a  smaller  proportion  to  the  whole 
mass  of  the  material  universe,  than  a  single  grain  of  sand  to 
all  the  particles  of  matter  contained  in  the  body  of  the  sun 
and  his  attending  planets. 

If  we  extend  our  views  from  the  solar  system  to  the  starry 
heavens,  we  have  to  penetrate,  in  our  imagination,  a  space 
which  the  swiftest  ball  that  was  ever  projected,  though  in  per- 
petual motion,  would  not  traverse  in  ten  hundred  thousand 
years.  In  those  trackless  regions  of  immensity,  we  behold 
an  assemblage  of  resplendent  globes,  similar  to  the  sun  in 
size  and  glory,  and  doubtless  accompanied  with  a  retinue  of 

4 


38  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

worlds,  revolving  like  our  own  around  their  attractive  influ- 
ence. The  immense  distance  at  which  the  nearest  stars  are 
known  to  be  placed  proves  that  they  are  bodies  of  a  prodigious 
size,  not  inferior  to  our  own  sun,  and  that  they  shine,  not  by 
reflected  rays,  but  by  their  own  native  light.  But  bodies  en- 
circled with  such  refulgent  splendour  would  be  of  little  use 
in  the  economy  of  Jehovah's  empire,  unless  surrounding 
worlds  were  cheered  by  their  benign  influence,  and  enlighten- 
ed by  their  beams.  Every  star  is  therefore,  with  good  reason, 
concluded  to  be  a  sun,  no  less  spacious  than  ours,  surrounded 
by  a  host  of  planetary  globes,  which  revolve  aronnd  it  as  a 
centre,  and  derive  from  it  light,  heat,  and  comfort.  Nearly  a 
thousand  of  these  luminaries  may  be  seen  in  a  clear  winter 
night  by  the  naked  eye ;  so  that  a  mass  of  matter  equal  to  a 
thousand  solar  systems,  or  to  thirteen  hundred  and  twenty 
millions  of  globes  of  the  size  of  the  earthy  may  be  perceived 
by  every  common  observer  in  the  canopy  of  heaven.  But  all 
the  celestial  orbs  which  are  perceived  by  the  unassisted  sight 
do  not  form  the  eighty-thousandth  part  of  those  which  may 
be  descried  by  the  help  of  optical  instruments.  The  telescope 
has  enabled  us  to  descry,  in  certain  spaces  in  the  heavens, 
thousands  of  stars  where  the  naked  eye  could  scarcely  discern 
twenty.  The  late  celebrated  astronomer,  Di*.  Herschel,  has 
informed  us,  that  in  the  most  crowded  parts  of  the  Milk-way, 
when  exploring  that  region  with  his  best  glasses,  he  has  had 
fields  of  view  which  contained  no  less  than  five  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  stars,  and  these  were  continued  for  many  minutes ; 
so  that,  "in  one  quarter  of  an  hour's  time  there  passed  no  less 
than  one  hundred  and  sixteen  thousand  stars  through  the  field 
of  view  of  his  telescope." 

It  has  been  computed,  that  nearly  one  hundred  millions  of 
stars  might  be  perceived  by  the  most  perfect  instruments,  were 
all  the  regions  of  the  sky  thoroughly  explored  :  and  yet,  all 
this  vast  assemblage  of  suns  and  worlds,  when  compared  with 
what  lies  beyond  the  utmost  boundaries  of  human  vision,  in 
the  immeasurable  spaces  of  creation,  may  be  no  more  than  as 
the  smallest  particle  of  vapour  to  the  immense  ocean.  Im- 
measurable regions  of  space  lie  beyond  the  utmost  limits  of 
mortal  view,  into  which  even  imagination  itself  can  scarcely 
penetrate,  and  which  are,  doubtless,  replenished  with  the 
operations  of  divine  wisdom  and  omnipotence.  For  it  cannot 
be  supposed,  that  a  being  so  diminutive  as  man,  whose  stature 
scarcely  exceeds  six  feet — who  vanishes  from  the  sight  at  the 
distance  of  a  league — whose  whole  habitation  is  invisible  from 
the  nearest  star — whose  powers  of  vision  are  so  imperfect, 


OMNlPOTExNCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  39 

and  whose  mental  faculties  are  so  limited, — it  cannot  be  sup- 
posed that  man,  who  "  dwells  in  tabernacles  of  clay,  who  is 
crushed  before  the  moth,"  and  chained  down  by  the  force  of 
gravitation  to  the  surface  of  a  small  planet — should  be  able  to 
descry  the  utmost  boundaries  of  the  empire  of  Him  who  fills 
immensity,  and  dwells  in  "  light  unapproachable.""  That  por- 
tion of  his  dominions,  however,  which  lies  within  the  range 
of  our  view,  presents  such  a  scene  of  magnificence  and 
grandeur,  as  must  fill  the  mind  of  every  reflecting  person  with 
astonishment  and  reverence,  and  constrain  him  to  exclaim, 
'^  Great  is  our  Lord,  and  of  great  power,  his  understanding  is 
infinite."  "  When  I  consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy 
fingers,  the  moon  and  the  stars,  which  thou  hast  ordained ; 
what  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him  .?"  I  have  heard 
of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear;"  I  have  listened  to  subtile 
disquisitions  on  thy  character  and  perfections,  and  have  been 
but  litde  afl^ected;  "but  now  mine  eye  seetli  thee :  wherefore 
I  humble  myself,  and  repent  in  dust  and  ashes." 

In  order  to  feel  the  full  force  of  the  impression  made  by 
such  contemplations,  the  mind  must  pause  at  every  step  in  its 
excursions  through  the  boundless  regions  of  material  exist- 
ence :  for  it  is  not  by  a  mere  attention  to  the  figures  and  num- 
bers by  which  the  magnitudes  of  the  great  bodies  of  the  uni- 
verse are  expressed,  that  we  arrive  at  the  most  distinct  and 
ample  conceptions  of  objects  so  grand  and  overwhelming. 
The  mind,  in  its  intellectual  range,  must  dwell  on  every  in- 
dividual scene  it  contemplates,  and  on  the  various  objects  of 
which  it  is  composed.  It  must  add  scene  to  scene,  magnitude 
to  magnitude,  and  compare  smaller  objects  with  greater — a 
range  of  mountains  with  the  whole  earth,  the  earth  with  the 
planet  Jupiter,  Jupiter  with  the  sun,  the  sun  with  a  thousand 
stars,  a  thousand  stars  with  eighty  millions,  and  eighty  mil- 
lions with  all  the  boundless  extent  which  lies  beyond  th(3 
limits  of  mortal  vision:  and,  at  every  step  of  this  mental  pro- 
cess, sufiicient  time  must  be  allowed  for  the  imagination  to 
expatiate  on  the  objects  before  it,  till  the  ideas  approximate, 
as  near  as  possible,  to  the  reality,  [n  order  to  form  a  com- 
prehensive conception  of  the  extent  of  the  terraqueous  globe, 
the  mind  must  dwell  on  an  extensive  landscape,  and  the  ob- 
jects with  which  it  is  adorned  :  it  must  endeavour  to  survey 
the  many  thousands  of  diversified  landscapes  which  the  earth 
exhibits — the  hills  and  plains,  the  lakes  and  rivers  and  moun- 
tains, which  stretch  in  endless  variety  over  its  surface  :  it 
must  dive  into  the  vast  caverns  of  the  ocean — penetrate  into 
the  subterraneous  regions  of  the  globe,  and  wing  its  way 


40  CHRISTIAN  rniLOSOPHER. 

amidst  clouds  and  tempests,  through  the  surrounding  atmo- 
sphere. It  must  next  extend  its  flight  through  the  more  ex- 
pansive regions  of  the  sohir  system,  realizing,  in  imagination, 
those  magnificent  scenes  which  can  be  descried  neither  by 
the  naked  eye,  nor  by  the  telescope ;  and  comparing  the  ex- 
tent of  our  sublunary  world,  with  the  more  magnificent  globes 
that  roll  around  us.  Leaving  the  sun  and  all  his  attendant 
planets  behind,  till  they  have  diminished  to  the  size  of  a  small 
twinkling  star,  it  must  next  wing  its  way  to  the  starry  regions, 
and  pass  from  one  system  of  worlds  to  another,  from  one 
nebula*  to  another,  from  one  region  of  nebulse  to  another, 
till  it  arrive  at  the  utmost  boundaries  of  creation  which  human 
genius  has  explored.  It  must  also  endeavour  to  extend  its 
lliglit  beyond  all  that  is  visible  by  the  best  telescopes,  and 
expatiate  at  large  in  that  boundless  expanse  into  which  no 
human  eye  has  yet  penetrated,  and  which  is  doubtless  re- 
plenished with  other  worlds,  and  systems,  and  firmaments, 
where  the  operations  of  infinite  povver  and  beneficence  are 
displayed,  in  endless  variety,  throughout  the  illimitable  regions 
of  space. 

Here  then,  with  reverence,  let  us  pause  and  wonder!  Over 
all  this  vast  assemblage  of  material  existence,  God  presides. 
Amidst  the  diversified  objects  and  intelligences  it  contains,  he 
is  eternally  and  essentially  present.  By  his  unerring  wisdom, 
all  its  complicated  movements  are  directed.  By  his  almighty 
fiat,  it  emerged  from  nothing  into  existence,  and  is  continually 
supported  from  age  to  age.  "He  spake,  and  it  was  done; 
HE  commanded,  and  IT  STOOD  FAST."  " By  the  word  of 
the  Lord  were  the  heavens  made,  and  all  the  host  of  them  by 
the  spirit  of  his  mouth."  What  an  astonishing  display  of 
divine  power  is  here  exhibited  to  our  view !  How  far  trans- 
cending all  finite  comprehension  must  be  the  energies  of  Him 
wdio  only  "  spake,  and  it  was  done ;"  who  only  gave  the 
command,  and  this  mighty  system  of  the  universe,  with  all  its 
magnificence,  started  into  being  !  The  infinite  ease  with  which 
this  vast  fabric  was  reared,  leads  us  irresistibly  to  conclude, 
that  there  are  powers  and  energies  in  the  Divine  Mind  which 
have  never  yet  been  exerted,  and  which  may  unfold  them- 
selves to  intelligent  beings,  in  the  production  of  still  more 
astonishing  and  magnificent  effects,  during  an  endless  succes- 
sion of  existence.  That  man  who  is  not  impressed  with  a 
venerable  and  overwhelming  sense  of  the  power  and  majesty 
of  Jehovah  by  such  contemplations,  must  have  a  mind  inca- 

*  For  an  account  of  the  nebulaz,  see  eh.  ii.  Art.  Astronomy. 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  41 

pable  of  ardent  religious  emotions,  and  unqualified  for  appre- 
ciating the  grandeur  of  that  Being  "  whose  kingdom  ruleth 
over  all."  And  shall  such  ennobling  views  be  completely 
withheld  from  a  Christian  audience  ?  Shall  it  be  considered 
as  a  matter  of  mere  indifference,  whether  their  views  of  the 
Creator's  works  be  limited  to  the  sphere  of  a  few  miles 
around  them,  or  extended  to  ten  thousand  worlds  ? — whether 
they  shall  be  left  to  view  the  operations  of  the  Almighty 
throughout  eternity  past  and  to  come,  as  confined  to  a  small 
globe,  placed  in  the  immensity  of  space,  with  a  number  of 
brilliant  studs  fixed  in  the  arch  of  heaven,  at  a  few  miles'  dis- 
tance ;  or,  as  extending  through  the  boundless  dimensions  of 
space  ? — whether  they  shall  be  left  to  entertain  no  higher 
idea  of  the  Divine  Majesty  than  what  may  be  due  to  one  of 
the  superior  orders  of  the  seraphim  or  cherubim  ;  or,  whether 
they  shall  be  directed  to  form  the  most  august  conceptions 
of  the  King  eternal,  immortal,  and  invisible,  corresponding  to 
the  displays  he  has  given  of  his  glory  in  his  visible  works  ? 
If  it  be  not,  both  reason  and  piety  require  that  such  illustra- 
tions of  the  divine  perfections  should  occasionally  be  exhi- 
bited to  their  view. 

In  the  next  place,  the  rapid  motions  of  the  great  bodies  of 
the  universe,  no  less  than  their  magnitudes,  display  the  infi- 
nite power  of  the  Creator. 

We  can  acquire  accurate  ideas  of  the  relative  velocities  of 
moving  bodies,  only  by  comparing  the  motions  with  which 
we  are  familiar,  with  one  another,  and  with  those  which  lie 
beyond  the  general  range  of  our  minute  inspection.  We  can 
acquire  a  pretty  accurate  conception  of  the  velocity  of  a  ship 
impelled  by  the  wind — of  a  steamboat — of  a  race-horse — of  a 
bird  darting  through  the  air — of  an  arrow  flying  from  a  bow 
— and  of  the  clouds  when  impelled  by  a  stormy  wind.  The 
velocity  of  a  ship  is  from  eight  to  twelve  miles  an  hour, — of 
a  race-horse,  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles, — of  a  bird,  say 
from  fifty  to  sixty  miles,  and  of  the  clouds,  in  a  violent  hur- 
ricane, from  eighty  to  one  hundred  miles  an  hour.  The  mo- 
tion of  a  ball  from  a  loaded  cannon  is  incomparably  swifter 
than  any  of  the  motions  now  stated  :  but  of  the  velocity  of 
such  a  body  we  have  a  less  accurate  idea  ;  because,  its  rapidity 
being  so  great,  we  cannot  trace  it  distinctly  by  the  eye,  through 
its  whole  range,  from  the  mouth  of  the  cannon  to  the  object 
against  which  it  is  impelled.  By  experiments,  it  has  been 
found,  that  its  rate  of  motion  is  from  four  hundred  and  eighty 
to  eight  hundred  miles  in  an  hour,  but  it  is  retarded  every 
moment  by  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  the  attraction  of  the 

4* 


42  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

earth.  This  velocity,  however,  great  as  it  is,  bears  no  sensi- 
ble proportion  to  the  rate  of  motion  which  is  fonnd  among 
the  celestial  orbs.  That  such  enormous  masses  of  matter 
should  move  at  all  is  wonderful :  but  when  we  consider  tlie 
amazing  velocity  with  which  they  are  impelled,  we  are  lost  in 
astonishment.  The  planet  Jupiter,  in  describing  its  circuit 
round  the  sun,  moves  at  the  rate  of  twenty-nine  thousand 
miles  an  hour.  The  planet  Venus,  one  of  the  nearest  and 
most  brilliant  of  the  celestial  bodies,  and  about  the  same  size 
as  the  earth,  is  found  to  move  through  the  spaces  of  the  firma- 
ment, at  the  rate  of  seventy-six  thousand  miles  an  hour ;  and 
the  planet  Mercury,  with  a  velocity  of  no  less  than  one  hun- 
dred and  five  thousand  miles  an  hour,  or  seventeen  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  in  a  minute — a  motion  two  hundred  times 
swifter  than  that  of  a  cannon  ball. 

These  velocities  will  appear  still  more  astonishing,  if  we 
consider  the  magnitude  of  the  bodies  which  are  thus  impelled, 
and  the  immense  forces  which  are  requisite  to  carry  them 
along  in  their  courses.  However  rapidly  a  ball  files  from  the 
mouth  of  a  cannon,  it  is  the  flight  of  a  body  only  a  few 
inches  in  diameter ;  but  one  of  the  bodies,  whose  motion  has 
been  just  now  stated,  is  eighty-nine  thousand  miles  in  diameter, 
and  would  comprehend  within  its  vast  circumference,  more 
than  a  thousand  globes  as  large  as  the  earth.  Could  we  con- 
template such  motions,  from  a  fixed  point,  at  the  distance  of 
only  a  few  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  bodies  thus  impelled, 
it  would  raise  our  admiration  to  its  highest  pitch,  it  would 
overwhelm  all  our  faculties,  and,  in  our  present  state,  would 
produce  an  impression  of  awe,  and  even  of  terror,  beyond  the 
power  of  language  to  express.  The  earth  contains  a  mass  of 
matter  equal  in  weight  to  at  least,  2,200,000,000,000,000,- 
000,000,  or  more  than  two  thousand  trillions  of  tons,  sup- 
posing its  mean  density  to  be  only  about  two  and  a  half  times 
greater  than  water.  To  move  this  ponderous  mass  a  single 
inch  beyond  its  position,  were  it  fixed  in  a  quiescent  state, 
would  require  a  mechanical  force  almost  beyond  the  power 
of  numbers  to  express.  The  physical  force  of  all  the  myriads 
of  intelligences  within  the  bounds  of  the  planetary  system, 
though  their  powers  were  far  superior  to  those  of  man,  would 
be  altogether  inadequate  to  the  production  of  such  a  motion. 
How  much  more  must  be  the  force  requisite  to  impel  it  with 
a  velocity  one  hundred  and  forty  times  sAvifter  than  a  cannon 
ball,  or  sixty-eight  thousand  miles  an  hour,  the  actual  rate  of 
its  motion,  in  its  course  round  the  sun  !  But  whatever  degree 
of  mechanical  power  would  be  requisite  to  produce  such  a 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  43 

stupendous  effect,  it  would  require  a  force  one  hundred  and 
fifiy  times  greater  to  impel  the  planet  Jupiter,  in  its  actual 
course  through  the  heavens !  Even  the  planet  Saturn,  one  of 
the  slowest  moving  bodies  of  our  system,  a  globe  nine  hun- 
dred times  larger  than  the  earth,  is  impelled  through  the  re- 
gions of  space,  at  the  rate  of  twenty-two  thousand  miles  an 
hour,  carrying  along  with  it  two  stupendous  rings,  and  seven 
moons  larger  than  ours,  through  its  whole  course  round  the 
central  luminary.  Were  we  placed  within  a  thousand  miles 
of  this  stupendous  globe,  (a  station  which  superior  beings 
may  occasionally  occupy,)  where  its  hemisphere,  encom- 
passed by  its  magnificent  rings,  would  fill  the  whole  extent  of 
our  vision — the  view  of  such  a  ponderous  and  glorious  ob- 
ject, flying  with  such  an  amazing  velocity  before  us,  would 
infinitely  exceed  every  idea  of  grandeur  we  can  derive  from 
terrestrial  scenes,  and  overwhelm  our  powers  with  astonish- 
ment and  awe.  Under  such  an  emotion,  we  could  only  ex- 
claim, "Great  and  marvellous  are  thy  works.  Lord 
God  Almighty  I"  The  ideas  of  strength  and  power  implied 
in  the  impulsion  of  such  enormous  masses  of  matter,  through 
the  illimitable  tracts  of  space,  are  forced  upon  the  mind  with 
irresistible  energy,  far  surpassing  what  any  abstract  proposi- 
tions or  reasonings  can  convey  ;  and  constrain  us  to  exclaim, 
"  Who  is  a  strong  Lord  like  unto  thee !  Thy  right  hand  is 
become  glorious  in  power !  The  Lord  God  omnipotent 
reigneth !" 

If  we  consider  the  immense  number  of  bodies  thus  impelled 
through  the  vast  spaces  of  the  universe — the  rapidity  with 
which  the  comets^  when  near  the  sun,  are  carried  through  the 
regions  they  traverse, — if  we  consider  the  high  probability,  if 
not  absolute  certainty,  that  the  sun,  with  all  its  attendant 
planets  and  comets,  is  impelled  with  a  still  greater  degree  of 
velocity  towards  some  distant  region  of  space,  or  around 
some  wide  circumference — that  all  the  thousands  of  systems 
of  that  nebula  to  which  the  sun  belongs,  are  moving  in  a 
similar  manner — that  all  the  nebulae  in  the  heavens  are  mov- 
ing around  some  magnificent  central  body,  in  short,  that  all 
the  suns  and  worlds  in  the  universe  are  in  rapid  and  perpe- 
tual motion,  as  constituent  portions  of  one  grand  and  bound- 
less enipire,  of  which  Jehovah  is  the  Sovereign — and  if  we 
consider  still  further,  that  all  these  mighty  movements  have 
been  going  on,  without  intermission,  during  the  course  of 
many  centuries,  and  some  of  them,  perliaps,  for  myriads  of 
ages  before  the  foundation  of  our  world  was  laid — it  is  im- 
possible for  the  human  mind  to  form  any  adequate  idea  of  the 


44  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

stupendous  forces  which  are  in  incessant  operation  through- 
out the  unlimited  empire  of  the  Ahnighty.  To  estimate  such 
mechanical  force,  even  in  a  single  instance,  completely  bailies 
the  mathematician's  skill,  and  sets  the  power  of  numbers  at 
defiance.  "  Language,"  and  figures,  and  comparisons,  are 
"  lost  in  wonders  so  sublime,"  and  the  mind,  overpowered 
with  such  reflections,  is  irresistibly  led  upwards  to  search  for 
the  cause  in  that  Omnipotent  Being  who  upholds  the  pil- 
lars of  the  universe — the  thunder  of  whose  power  none  can 
comprehend.  While  contemplating  such  august  objects,  how 
emphatic  and  impressive  appears  the  language  of  the  sacred 
oracles  :  "  Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ?  Canst 
thou  find  out  the  Almighty  unto  perfection  ?  Great  things 
doth  he  which  we  cannot  comprehend.  Thine,  O  Lord,  is 
the  greatness,  and  the  glory,  and  the  majesty;  for  all  that  is 
in  heaven  and  earth  is  thine.  Among  the  gods  there  is  none 
like  unto  thee,  O  Lord ;  neither  are  there  any  works  like 
imto  thy  works.  Thou  art  great,  and  dost  wondrous  things: 
thou  art  God  alone.  Hast  thou  not  known,  hast  thou  not 
heard,  that  the  everlasting  God,  the  Lord,  the  Creator  of  all 
things,  fainteth  not,  neither  is  weary?  there  is  no  searching 
of  his  understanding.  Let  all  the  earth  fear  the  Lord,  let  all 
tlie  inhabitants  of  the  world  stand  in  awe  of  him  ;  for  he 
spake^  and  it  was  done  ;  he  commanded,  and  it  stood  fast." 

Again,  the  immense  spaces  which  surround  the  heavenly 
bodies,  and  in  which  they  perform  their  revolutions,  tend  to 
expand  our  conceptions  on  this  subject,  and  to  illustrate  die 
magnificence  of  the  divine  operations.  In  whatever  point  of 
view  we  contemplate  the  scenery  of  the  heavens,  an  idea  of 
grandeur  irresistibly  bursts  upon  the  mind ;  and  if  empty  space 
can,  in  any  sense,  be  considered  as  an  object  of  sublimity, 
nothing  can  fill  the  mind  with  a  grander  idea  of  magnitude 
and  extension,  than  the  amplitude  of  the  scale  on  which  pla- 
netary systems  are  constructed.  Around  the  body  of  the  sun 
there  is  allotted  a  cubical  space,  thirty-six  hundred  millions 
of  miles  in  diameter,  in  which  eleven  planetary  globes  revolve 
— every  one  being  separated  from  another,  by  intervals  of 
many  millions  of  miles.  The  space  which  surrounds  the 
utmost  limits  of  our  system,  extending,  in  every  direction,  to 
the  nearest  fixed  stars,  is,  at  least,  40,000,000,000,000,  or 
forty  billions  of  miles  in  diameter;  and,  it  is  higldy  probable, 
that  every  star  is  surrounded  by  a  space  of  equal  or  even  of 
greater  extent.  A  body  impelled  with  the  greatest  velocity 
which  art  can  produce — a  cannon  ball,  for  instance — would 
require  twenty  years  to  pass  through  the  space  that  intervenes 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  45 

between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  and  four  millions  seven  hun- 
dred thousand  years,  ere  it  could  reach  the  nearest  star. 
Though  the  stars  seem  to  be  crowded  together  in  clusters, 
and  some  of  them  almost  to  touch  one  another,  yet  the  dis- 
tance, between  any  two  stars  which  seem  to  make  the  nearest 
approach,  is  such  as  neither  words  can  express,  nor  imagina- 
tion fathom.  These  immense  spaces  are  as  unfathomable,  on 
the  one  hand,  as  the  magnitude  of  the  bodies  which  move  in 
them,  and  their  prodigious  velocities,  are  incomprehensible, 
on  the  other;  and  they  form  a  part  of  those  magiiiiicent  pro- 
portions according  to  which  the  fabric  of  universal  nature  was 
arranged — all  corresponding  to  the  majesty  of  that  infinite  and 
incomprehensible  Being,  "  who  measures  the  ocean  in  the 
hollow  of  his  hand,  and  meteth  out  the  heavens  with  a  span," 
IIow  wonderful  that  bodies  at  such  prodigious  distances 
should  exert  a  mutual  influence  on  one  another !  that  the 
moon,  at  the  distance  of  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
miles,  should  raise  tides  in  the  ocean,  and  currents  in  the 
atmosphere!  that  the  sun,  at  the  distance  of  ninety-five  mil- 
lions of  miles,  should  raise  the  vapours,  move  the  ocean, 
direct  the  course  of  the  winds,  fructify  the  earth,  and  distri- 
bute light,  and  heat,  and  colour,  through  every  region  of  the 
globe!  yea,  that  its  attractive  influence  and  fructifying  energy 
should  extend  even  to  the  planet  Herschel,  at  the  distance  of 
eighteen  hundred  millions  of  miles  !  So  that,  in  every  point 
of  view  in  which  the  universe  is  contemplated,  we  perceive 
the  same  grand  scale  of  operation  by  which  the  Almighty 
has  arranged  the  provinces  of  his  universal  kingdom. 

We  should  now  ask,  in  the  name  of  all  that  is  sacred, 
whether  such  magnificent  manifestations  of  Deity  ought  to  be 
considered  as  irrelevant  in  the  business  of  religion,  and 
whether  they  ought  to  be  thrown  completely  into  the  shade, 
in  the  discussions  which  take  place  on  religious  topics,  in 
"  the  assemblies  of  the  saints  ?"  Jf  religion  consist  in  the 
intellectual  apprehension  of  the  perfections  of  God,  and  in 
the  moral  effects  produced  by  such  an  apprehension — if  all 
the  rays  of  glory  emitted  by  the  luminaries  of  heaven  are 
only  so  many  reflections  of  the  grandeur  of  Him  who  dwells 
in  light  unapproachable — if  they  have  a  tendency  to  assist 
the  mind  in  forming  its  conceptions  of  that  ineflkble  Being, 
whose  uncreated  glory  cannot  be  directly  contemplated — and 
if  they  are  calculated  to  produce  a  sublime  and  awful  impres- 
sion on  all  created  intelligences, — shall  we  rest  contented  with 
a  less  glorious  idea  of  God  than  his  works  are  calculated  to 
.afford.?     Shall  we  disregard  the  works  of  the  Lord,  and  con- 


46  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOrHER. 

temu  "  the  operations  of  his  hands,"  and  that  too  in  the  face 
of  all  the  invitations  on  this  subject  addressed  to  us  from 
heaven  ?  For  thus  saith  Jehovah — "  Lift  up  your  eyes  on 
high,  and  behold,  who  hath  created  these  things — who  bring- 
eth  forth  their  host  by  number  ?  I  tjie  Lord,  who  maketh  all 
things,  who  stretched  forth  the  heavens  alone,  and  spread 
abroad  the  earth  by  myself;  all  their  host  have  I  commanded.'' 
And  if,  at  the  command  of  God,  we  lift  our  eyes  to  tlie 
"firmament  of  his  power,"  surely  we  ought  to  do  it  not  with 
a  "■  brute  unconscious  gaze,"  not  with  tlie  vacant  stare  of  a 
savage,  not  as  if  we  were  still  enveloped  with  liie  mists  and 
prejudices  of  the  dark  ages — but  as  surrounded  by  that  blaze 
of  light  which  modern  science  has  thrown  upon  the  scenery 
of  the  sky,  in  order  that  we  may  contemplate,  with  fixed 
attention,  all  that  enlightened  reason,  aided  by  the  nicest 
observations,  has  ascertained  respecting  the  magnificence  of 
the  celestial  orbs.  To  overlook  the  sublime  discoveries  of 
modern  times,  to  despise  them,  or  to  call  in  question  their 
reality  as  some  religionists  have  done,  because  they  bring  to 
our  ears  such  astonishimg  reports  of  the  "  eternal  power" 
and  majesty  of  Jehovah — is  to  act  as  if  we  were  afraid  lest 
the  Deity  should  be  represented  as  more  grand  and  magnifi- 
cent than  he  really  is,  and  as  if  we  would  be  better  pleased 
to  pay  him  a  less  share  of  homage  and  adoration  than  is  due 
to  his  name. 

Perhaps  some  may  be  disposed  to  insinuate,  that  the  views 
now  stated  are  above  the  level  of  ordinary  comprehension, 
and  founded  too  much  on  scientific  considerations,  to  be 
stated  in  detail  to  a  common  audience.  To  any  insinuations 
of  this  kind,  it  may  be  replied,  that  such  illustrations  as  those 
to  which  we  have  referred,  are  more  easily  comprehended 
than  many  of  those  abstract  discussions  to  which  they  are 
frequently  accustomed  ;  since  they  are  definite  and  tangible, 
being  derived  from  those  objects  which  strike  the  senses 
and  the  imagination.  Any  person  of  common  understanding 
may  be  made  to  comprehend  the  leading  ideas  of  extended 
space,  magnitude  and  motion,  which  have  been  stated  above, 
provided  the  descriptions  be  sufficiently  simple,  clear,  and 
well  defined  ;  and  should  they  be  at  a  loss  to  comprehend 
the  principles  on  which  the  conclusions  rest,  or  the  mode  by 
which  the  magnificence  of  tlie  works  of  God  has  been  ascer- 
tained, an  occasional  reference  to  such  topics  would  excite 
them  to  inquiry  and  investigation,  and  to  the  exercise  of  their 
powers  of  observation  and  reasoning  on  such  subjects — 
which  are  too  frequently  directed  to  far  less  important  objects. 


OMx^IPOTExXCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  47 

The  following  illustration,  however,  stands  clear  of  every 
objection  of  this  kind,  and  is  level  to  the  comprehension  of 
every  man  of  common  sense  : — Either  the  earth  moves  round 
its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours — or  the  sun,  moon,  planets, 
comets,  stars,  or  the  whole  frame  of  the  universe,  move  around 
the  earth  in  the  same  time.  There  is  no  alternative,  or  third 
opinion,  that  can  be  formed  on  this  point.  If  the  eartli  revolve 
on  its  axis  every  twenty-four  hours,  to  produce  the  alternate 
succession  of  day  and  night,  the  portions  of  its  surface  about 
the  equator  must  move  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  an  hour,  since  the  earth  is  more  than  twenty-four  thou- 
sand miles  in  circumference.  Tiiis  view  of  the  fact,  when 
attentively  considered,  furnishes  a  most  sublime  and  astonisli- 
ing  idea.  That  a  globe  of  so  vast  dimensions,  with  all  its 
load  of  mountains,  continents,  and  oceans,  comprising  within 
its  circumference  a  mass  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-four  thou- 
sand miUions  of  cubical  miles,  should  whirl  round  with  so 
amazing  a  velocity,  gives  us  a  most  august  and  impressive 
conception  of  the  greatness  of  that  power  which  first  set  it  in 
motion,  and  continues  the  rapid  whirl  from  age  to  age ! 
Though  the  huge  masses  of  the  Alpine  mountains  were  in  a 
moment  detached  from  their  foundations,  carried  aloft  through 
the  regions  of  the  air,  and  tossed  into  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
it  would  convey  no  idea  of  a  force  equal  to  that  which  is 
every  moment  exerted,  if  the  earth  revolve  on  its  axis.  But 
should  the  motion  of  the  earth  be  called  in  question,  or 
denied,  the  idea  of  force,  or  power,  will  be  indefinitely  in- 
creased. For,  in  this  case,  it  must  necessarily  be  admitted, 
that  the  heavens,  with  all  the  innumerable  hosts  of  stars,  have 
a  diurnal  motion  around  our  globe;  which  motion  must  be 
inconceivably  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  earth,  on  the  sup- 
position of  its  motion.  For,  in  proportion  as  the  celestial 
bodies  are  distant  from  the  earth,  in  the  same  proportion 
would  be  the  rapidity  of  their  movements.  The  sun,  on  this 
supposition,  would  move  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  and 
fourteen  thousand  miles  in  a  minute ;  the  nearest  stars,  at  the 
rate  of  fourteen  hundred  millions  of  miles  in  a  second;  and 
tlie  most  distant  luminaries,  with  a  degree  of  swiftness  which 
no  numbers  could  express.*  Such  velocities,  too,  would  be 
the  rate  of  motion,  not  merely  of  a  single  globe  like  the  earth, 
but  of  all  the  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand  spacious  globes 
that  exist  within  the  boundaries  of  creation.  This  view  con- 
veys an  idea  of  power  still  more  august  and  overwhelming 

*  See  Appendix,  Note  I. 


48  CHRISTIAN  PlIILOSOrHER. 

than  any  of  the  views  ah'eady  state(],  and  we  dare  not  presume 
to  assert  that  such  a  degree  of  physical  force  is  beyond  the 
limits  of  infinite  perfection;  but  on  the  supposition  it  existed, 
it  would  conf(nnid  all  our  ideas  of  the  wisdom  and  intelli- 
gence of  the  Divine  Mind,  and  would  appear  altogether  incon- 
sistent with  the  character  which  the  Scriptures  give  us  of  the 
Deity  as  "  the  only-wise  God."  For  it  would  exhibit  a  stu- 
pendous system  of  means  altogether  disproportioned  to  the 
end  intended — namely,  to  produce  the  alternate  succession  of 
day  and  night  to  the  inliabitants  of  our  globe,  which  is  more 
beautifully  and  harmoniously  effected  by  a  single  rotation  on 
its  axis,  as  is  the  case  with  the  other  globes  which  compose 
the  planetary  system.  Such  considerations,  however,  show 
us,  that  on  whatever  hypothesis,  whether  on  the  vulgar  or  the 
scientific,  or  in  whatever  other  point  of  view  the  frame  of  na- 
ture may  be  contemplated,  the  mind  is  irresistibly  impressed 
with  ideas  of  power,  grandeur,  and  magnificence.  And  there- 
fore, when  an  inquiring  mind  is  directed  to  contemplate  the 
works  of  God,  on  any  hypothesis  it  may  choose,  it  has  a 
tendency  to  rouse  reflection,  and  to  stimulate  the  exercise  of 
the  moral  and  intellectual  faculties,  on  objects  which  are 
worthy  of  the  dignity  of  immortal  minds. 

We  may  now  be,  in  some  measure,  prepared  to  decide^ 
whether  illustrations  of  the  omnipotence  of  the  Deity,  derived 
from  the  system  of  the  material  world,  or  those  vague  and 
metaphysical  disquisitions  which  are  generally  given  in  theo- 
logical systems,  be  most  calculated  to  impress  the  mind,  and 
to  inspire  it  with  reverence  and  adoration.  The  following  is 
a  description  given  of  this  attribute  of  God,  by  a  well  known 
systematic  writer,  who  had  generally  been  considered  as  a 
judicious  and  orthodox  divine  : — 

'•■  God  is  Almighty.*  This  will  evidently  appear,  in  that, 
if  he  be  infinite  in  all  his  other  perfections,  he  must  be  so  in 
power;  thus,  if  he  be  omniscient,  he  knows  what  is  possible 
or  expedient  to  be  done;  and  if  he  be  an  infinite  Sovereign, 
he  wills  whatever  shall  come  to  pass.  Now  this  knowledge 
would  be  insignificant,  and  his  power  inetTicacious,  were  he 
not  infinite  in  power,  or  almighty.  Again,  this  might  be 
argued  from  his  justice,  either  in  rewarding  or  punishing; 
for,  if  he  were  not  infinite  in  power,  he  could  do  neither  of 
these,  at  least  so  far  as  to  render  him  the  object  of  that  desire 
or  fear,  which  is  agreeable  to  the  nature  of  these  perfections; 
neither  could  infinite  faithfulness  accomplish  all  the  promises 

*  Rev.i.  18;  iv.  8. 


OMxNlPOTENCE  OF   THE  DEITY.  49 

"vvhich  he  hath  made,  so  as  to  excite  that  trust  and  depend- 
ence, which  is  a  part  of  religious  worship;  nor  could  he  say 
without  limitation,  as  he  does,  /  kav>e  spoken  It^  I  will  also 
bring  it  to  j^ass:  I  have  purposed  it^  I  will  also  do  it*  But 
since  power  is  visible  in,  and  demonstrated  by,  its  effects,  and 
infinite  power  by  those  effects  which  cannot  be  produced  by 
a  creature,  we  may  observe  the  almighty  power  of  God  in  all 
his  works,  both  of  nature  and  grace  ;  thus  his  eternal  power 
is  understood,  as  the  apostle  says,  hy  the'  things  that  are 
7nadc;\  not  that  there  was  an  eternal  production  of  things, 
but  the  exerting  this  power  in  time,  proves  it  to  be  infinite  and 
truly  divine ;  for  no  creature  can  produce  the  smallest  particle 
of  matter  out  of  nothing,  much  less  furnish  the  various  species 
of  creatures  with  those  endowments  in  which  they  excel  one 
another,  and  set  forth  their  Creator's  glory.  And  the  glory 
of  his  power  is  no  less  visible  in  the  works  of  providence, 
whereby  he  upholds  all  things,  disposes  of  them  according  to 
his  pleasure,  and  brings  about  events  which  only  he  who  has 
an  almighty  arm  can  effect.";|; 

This  is  the  whole  that  Dr.  Ridgley  judges  it  necessary  to 
state  in  illustration  of  the  attribute  of  omnipotence,  except 
what  he  says  in  relation  to  its  operation  in  "  the  work  of 
grace,"  in  '*  the  propagation  and  success  of  the  Gospel,"  &c.; 
subjects,  to  which  the  idea  of  power,  or  physical  energy,  does 
not  properly  apply.  Such,  however,  are  the  meager  and  ab- 
stract disquisitions  generally  given  by  most  systematic  writers. 
There  is  a  continual  play  on  the  term  "infinite,"  which,  to 
most  minds,  conveys  no  idea  at  all,  unless  it  be  associated 
with  ample  conceptions  of  motion,  magnitude,  and  extension ; 
and  it  is  constantly  applied  to  subjects  to  which  it  was  never 
intended  to  apply,  such  as,  "infinite  faithfulness,  infmile  jus- 
tice, infinite  truth,"  &c.;  an  application  of  the  term  which  is 
never  sanctioned  by  Scripture,  and  which  has  a  tendency  to 
introduce  confusion  into  our  conceptions  of  the  perfections  of 
God.  Granting  that  the  statements  and  reasonings  in  such  an 
extract  as  the  above  were  unquestionable,  yet  what  impression 
can  they  make  upon  the  mind  ?  Would  an  ignorant  person 
feel  his  conception  of  the  Divinity  much  enlarged,  or  his 
moral  powers  aroused,  by  such  vague  and  general  statements  } 
And,  if  not,  it  appears  somewhat  unaccountable,  that  those 
sources  of  illustration,  which  would  convey  the  most  ample 
and  definite  views  of  the  "eternal  power"  and  glory  of  God, 

*  Isaiah,  xlvi.  11.  t  Romans,  i.  20, 

I  Ridgley's  Body  of  Divinity,  p.  39. 

5 


50  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

should  be  stiidiouslv  concealed  from  the  view.  Vague  de- 
scriptions and  general  views  of  any  object  will  never  be  efiectual 
in  awakening  the  attention  and  arresting  the  faculties  of  the 
mind.  The  heart  will  always  remain  unimpressed,  and  the 
understanding  will  never  be  thoroughly  excited  in  its  exercise, 
unless  the  intellect  have  presented  before  it  a  well  defined  and 
interesting  object,  and  be  enabled  to  survey  it  in  its  various 
aspects ;  and  this  object  must  always  have  a  relation  to  the 
material  world,  whether  it  be  viewed  in  connexion  with  reli- 
gion or  with  any  other  subject. 

Thus  I  have  endeavoured,  in  the  preceding  sketches,  to 
present  a  few  detached  illustrations  of  the  omnipotence  and 
grandeur  of  the  Deity,  as  displayed  in  the  vast  magnitude  of 
the  material  universe — the  stupendous  velocities  of  the  celes- 
tial bodies — and  in  the  immeasurable  regions  of  space  which 
surround  them,  and  in  which  their  motions  are  performed. 
Such  a  magnificent  spectacle  as  the  fabric  of  the  universe 
presents — so  majestic,  godlike,  and  overwhelming,  to  beings 
who  dwell  "in  tabernacles  of  clay" — was  surely  never  in- 
tended to  be  overlooked,  or  to  be  gazed  at  with  indifference, 
by  creatures  endowed  with  reason  and  intelligence,  and 
destined  to  an  immortal  existence.  In  forming  a  universe 
composed  of  so  many  immense  systems  and  worlds,  and  reple- 
nished with  such  a  variety  of  sensitive  and  intelligent  exist- 
ences, the  Creator,  doubtless,  intended  that  it  shoidd  make  a 
sublime  and  reverential  impression  on  the  minds  of  all  the 
intellectual  beings  to  whom  it  might  be  displayed,  and  that 
it  should  convey  some  palpahle  idea  of  the  infinite  glories  of 
liis  nature,  in  so  far  as  material  objects  can  be  supposed  to 
adumbrate  the  perfections  of  a  spiritual  and  uncreated  Es- 
sence. Dwelling  in  light  "  inaccessible"  to  mortals,  and  for 
ever  veiled  from  the  highest  created  being,  by  the  pure  spi- 
rituality and  immensity  of  his  nature,  there  is  no  conceivable 
mode  by  which  the  infinite  grandeur  of  Deity  could  be  ex- 
hibited to  finite  intelligences,  but  through  the  medium  of  those 
magnificent  operations  which  are  incessantly  going  forward 
throughout  the  boundless  regions  of  space.  Concealed  from 
the  gaze  of  all  the  "  principalities  and  powers"  in  heaven,  in 
the  unfathomable  depths  of  his  essence,  he  displays  his  pre- 
sence in  the  universe  he  has  created,  and  the  glory  of  his 
power,  by  launching  magnificent  worlds  into  existence,  by 
adorning  them  with  diversified  splendours,  by  peopling  them 
with  various  ranks  of  intelligent  existence,  and  by  impelling 
them  in  their  movements  through  the  illimitable  tracts  of 
creation. 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  51 

It  will  readily  be  admitted  by  every  enlightened  Christian, 
that  it  must  be  a  highly  desirable  attainment,  to  acquire  the 
most  glorious  idea  of  the  Divine  Being,  which  the  limited 
capacity  of  our  minds  is  capable  of  receiving.  This  is  one 
of  the  grand  difficulties  in  religion.  The  idea  of  a  Being 
purely  immaterial,  yet  pervading  infinite  space,  and  pos- 
sessed of  no  sensible  qualities,  confounds  and  bewilders  the 
human  intellect,  so  that  its  conceptions,  on  the  one  hand,  are 
apt  to  verge  towards  extravagancy,  while,  on  the  other,  they 
are  apt  to  degenerate  into  something  approaching  to  inanity. 
Mere  abstract  ideas  and  reasonings  respecting  infinity,  eternity, 
and  absolute  perfection,  however  sublime  we  may  conceive 
them  to  be,  completely  fail  in  arresting  the  understanding,  and 
affecting  the  heart;  our  conceptions  become  vague,  empty, 
and  confused,  for  want  of  a  material  vehicle  to  give  them 
order,  stability,  and  expansion.  Something  of  the  nature  of 
vast  extension,  of  splendid  and  variegated  objects,  and  of 
mighty  movements,  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  con- 
vey to  spirits  dwelling  in  bodies  of  clay,  a  definite  conception 
of  the  invisible  glories  of  the  Eternal  Mind  ;  and,  therefore, 
in  the  immense  variety  of  material  existence  with  which  the 
universe  is  adorned,  we  find  every  requisite  assistance  of  this 
kind  to  direct  and  expand  our  views  of  the  Great  Object  of 
our  adoration.  When  the  mind  is  perplexed  and  overwhelmed 
with  its  conceptions,  when  it  labours,  as  it  were,  to  form 
some  well  defined  conceptions  of  an  Infinite  Being,  it  here 
finds  some  tangible  objects  on  which  to  fix  some  sensible 
suhstratum  for  its  thoughts  to  rest  upon  for  a  little,  while  it 
attempts  to  penetrate,  in  its  excursions,  into  those  distant 
regions  which  eye  hath  not  seen,  and  to  connect  the  whole 
of  its  mental  survey  with  the  energies  of  the  "  King  eternal, 
inmiortal,  and  invisible." 

To  such  a  train  of  thought  we  are  uniformly  directed  in 
the  sacred  oracles,  where  Jehovah  is  represented  as  describ- 
ing himself  by  the  effects  which  his  power  and  wisdom  have 
produced  : — "  Israel  shall  be  saved  in  the  Lord  with  an  ever- 
lasting salvation.  For  thus  saith  Jehovah  that  created  the 
heavens  ;  God  himself  that  formed  the  earth  and  made  it;  he 
hath  established  it,  he  created  it  not  in  vain,  he  formed  it  to 
be  inhabited;  I  am  the  Lord  and  there  is  none  else."  "  I  have 
made  the  earth  and  created  man  upon  it,  my  hands  have 
stretched  out  the  heavens,  and  all  their  hosts  have  I  com- 
manded." '^  Hearken  unto  me,  O  Israel  :  I  am  the  first,  1  also 
am  the  last.  Mine  hand  also  hath  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
earth,  and  my  right  hand  hath  spanned  the  heavens ;  when  I 


52  CHRISTIAN    PHlLOSOrHER- 

call  unto  theni,  they  stand  up  together.''  Who  hath  measured 
the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and  meted  out  heaven 
Avith  a  span,  and  weighed  the  mountains  in  scales  ?  He  who 
gitteth  upon  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and  the  inhabitants  thereof 
are  as  gras hoppers  ;  that  stretcheth  out  the  heavens  as  a 
curtain,  that  lainteth  not,  neither  is  weary."  '^The  Lord 
made  the  heavens,  the  heaven  of  heavens,  with  all  their  hosts ; 
honour  and  majesty  are  before  him,  and  his  kingdom  ruleth 
over  all."* — Such  sublime  descriptions  of  Jehovah,  and  re- 
ferences to  his  material  works,  are  reiterated  in  every  portion 
of  the  sacred  volume  :  and  the  import  and  sublimity  of  such 
expressions  cannot  be  fully  appreciated,  unless  we  take  into 
view  all  the  magnificent  objects  which  science  has  unveiled 
in  the  distant  regions  of  creation. 

This  subject  is  calculated,  not  merely  to  overpower  the 
intellect  with  ideas  of  sublimity  and  grandeur,  but  also  to  pro- 
duce a  deep  moral  impression  upon  the  heart;  and  a  Chris- 
tian philosopher  would  be  deficient  in  his  duty,  were  he  to 
overlook  this  tendency  of  the  objects  of  his  contemplation. 

One  important  moral  effect  which  this  subject  has  a 
natural  tendency  to  produce,  is,  profound  humility.  What 
an  insignificant' being  does  man  appear,  when  he  compares 
himself  with  the  magnificence  of  creation,  and  with  the 
myriads  of  exalted  intelligences  with  which  it  is  peopled  ! 
What  are  all  the  honours  and  splendours  of  this  earthly  ball, 
of  which  mortals  are  so  proud,  when  placed  in  competition 
with  the  resplendent  glories  of  the  sky !  Such  a  display  as 
the  Almighty  has  given  of  himself,  in  the  magnitude  and 
variety  of  his  works,  was  evidently  intended  "  to  stain  the 
pride"  of  all  human  grandeur,  that  "  no  flesh  should  glory  in 
his  presence."  Yet  there  is  no  disposition  that  appears  so 
prominent  among  puny  mortals  as  pride,  ambition,  and  vain- 
glory— the  very  opposite  of  humility,  and  of  all  those  tem- 
pers which  become  those  "  who  dwell  in  tabernacles  of  clay, 
and  whose  foundation  is  in  the  dust."  Even  without  taking 
into  account  the  state  of  man  as  a  depraved  intelligence,  what 
is  there  in  his  situation  that  should  inspire  him  with  "  lofty 
looks,"  and  induce  him  to  look  down  on  his  fellow-men  with 
supercilious  contempt  ?  He  derived  his  origin  from  the  dust, 
he  is  allied  with  the  beasts  that  perish,  and  he  is  fast  hasten- 
ing to  the  grave,  where  his  carcass  will  become  the  food  of 
noisome  reptiles.  He  is  every  moment  depending  on  a  supe- 
rior Being  for  every  pulse  that  beats,  and   every  breath  he 

*  Isaiah,  xlv.  17,  18,  12 ;  xlviii.  12,  13  ;  xl,  12,  22,  &c. 


OMNIPOTEiNCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  53 

draws,  and  for  all  that  he  possesses ;  he  is  dependent  even  on 
the  meanest  of  his  species  for  his  accommodations  and  com- 
forts. He  holds  every  enjoyment  on  the  most  precarious 
tenure, — his  friends  may  be  snatched  in  a  moment  from  his 
embrace-,  his  riches  may  take  to  themselves  wings  and  fly 
away;  and  his  health  and  beauty  may  be  blasted  in  an  hour, 
by  a  brealh  of  wind.  Hunger  and  thirst,  cold  and  heat, 
poverty  and  disgrace,  sorrow  and  disappointment,  pain  and  dis- 
ease, mingle  themselves  with  all  his  pursuits^and  enjoyments. 
His  knowledge  is  circumscribed  within  the  narrowest  limits, 
his  errors  and  follies  are  glaring  and  innumerable;  and  he 
stands  as  an  almost  undistinguishable  atom,  amidst  the  immen- 
sity of  God's  works.  Still,  with  all  these  powerful  inducements 
to  the  exercise  of  humility,  man  dares  to  be  proud  and  arrogant. 

"  Man,  proud  man, 
Dress'd  in  a  little  brief  authority. 
Plays  such  fantastic  tricks  before  high  heaven 
As  make  the  angels  weep," 

How  affecting  to  contemplate  the  warrior,  flushed  with  dia- 
bolical pride,  pursuing  his  conquests  through  heaps  of  slain, 
in  order  to  obtain  possession  of  "  a  poor,  pitiable  speck  of 
perishing  earth ;"  exclaiming  in  his  rage,  "  ]  will  pursue,  I 
will  overtake,  I  will  divide  the  spoil,  my  lust  shall  be  satisfied 
upon  them,  I  will  draw  the  sword,  my  hand  shall  destroy 
them" — to  behold  the  man  of  rank  glorying  in  his  wealth, 
and  his  empty  titles,  and  looking  around  upon  the  inferior 
orders  of  his  fellow-mortals  as  the  worms  of  the  dust — to  be- 
hold the  man  of  ambition  pushing  his  way  through  bribery, 
and  treachery,  and  slaughter,  to  gain  possession  of  a  throne, 
that  he  may  look  down  with  proud  pre-eminence  upon  his 
fellows — to  behold  the  haughty  airs  of  the  noble  dame, 
inflated  with  the  idea  of  her  beauty,  and  her  high  birth,  as 
she  struts  along,  surveying  the  ignoble  crowd,  as  if  they 
were  the  dust  beneath  her  feet — to  behold  the  smatterer  in 
learning,  puffed  up  with  a  vain  conceit  of  his  superficial  ac- 
quirements, when  he  has  scarcely  entered  the  porch  of  know- 
ledge,— in  fine,  to  behold  all  ranks,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest,  big  with  an  idea  of  their  own  importance,  and  fired 
with  pride  and  revenge  at  the  least  provocation,  whether 
imaginary  or  real !  How  inconsistent  the  manifestations  of 
such  tempers,  with  the  many  liumiliating  circumstances  of  our 
present  condition,  and  with  the  low  rank  which  we  hold  in 
the  scale  of  universal  being! 

It  is  not  improbable  that  there  are,  in  the  universe,  inteUi- 

5* 


54  CHRISTIAxN   fHILOSOFHER. 

gences  of  a  superior  order,  in  whose  breasts  pride  never  found 
a  place — to  whom  this  globe  of  ours,  and  all  its  inhabitants, 
appear  as  inconsiderable  as  a  drop  of  water,  filled  with  micro- 
scopic aiiimalculse,  does  to  the  proud  lords  of  this  earthly  re- 
gion. There  is  at  least  one  Being  to  whom  this  sentiment  is 
applicable,  in  its  utmost  extent: — "Before  Him  all  nations  are 
as  a  drop  of  a  bucket,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  as 
grashoppers;  yea,  they  are  as  nothing,  and  are  counted  to 
him  less  than  nothing  and  vanity."  Could  we  wing  our  way, 
with  the  swiftness  of  a  seraph,  from  sun  to  sun,  and  from 
world  to  world,  till  w^e  had  surveyed  all  the  systems  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  which  are  only  as  a  mere  speck  in  the  map 
of  the  universe — could  we,  at  the  same  time,  contemplate  the 
glorious  landscapes  and  scenes  of  grandeur  they  exhibit — 
could  we  also  mingle  with  the  pure  and  exalted  intelligences 
which  people  those  resplendent  abodes,  and  behold  then*  hum- 
ble and  ardent  adorations  of  their  almighty  Maker,  their  be- 
nign and  condescending  deportment  towards  one  another; 
"each  esteeming  another  better  than  himself,"  and  all  united 
in  the  bonds  of  the  purest  aflection,  without  one  haughty  or 
discordant  feeling — what  indignation  and  astonishment  would 
seize  us,  on  our  return  to  this  obscure  corner  of  creation,  to 
behold  beings  enveloped  in  the  mists  of  ignorance,  immersed 
in  depravity  and  wickedness,  liable  to  a  thousand  accidents, 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  earthquake,  the  volcano,  and 
the  storm;  yet  proud  as  Lucifer, and  glorying  in  their  shame! 
We  should  be  apt  to  view  them,  as  we  now  do  those  bed- 
lamites, who  fancy  themselves  to  be  kings,  surrounded  by  their 
nobles,  while  they  are  chained  to  the  walls-  of  a  noisome  dun- 
geon. "  Sure  pride  was  never  made  for  man."  Plow  abhor- 
rent, then,  must  it  appear  in  the  eyes  of  superior  beings,  who 
have  taken  an  expansive  range  through  the  field  of  creation ! 
How  abhorrent  it  is  in  the  sight  of  the  Almight}',  and  how 
amiable  is  the  opposite  virtue,  we  learn  from  his  word  : — 
"  Every  one  that  is  proud  in  heart  is  an  abomination  to  the 
Lord."  "God  resisteth  the  pro.ud,  but  he  giveth  grace  to  the 
humble."  "  Thus  saith  the  high  and  lofty  One,  who  inhabit- 
eth  eternity,  I  dwell  in  the  high  and  holy  place;  with  him 
also  that  is  of  an  humble  and  contrite  spirit;  to  revive  the 
spirit  of  the  humble,  and  the  heart  of  the  contrite  ones." 
Wliile,  therefore,  we  contemplate  the  omnipotence  of  God  in 
the  innnensity  of  creation,  let  us  learn  to  cultivate  humility 
and  self-abasement.  This  was  one  of  the  lessons  which  the 
pious  Psalmist  deduced  from  his  survey  of  tlie  nocturnal 
heavens.     When  he  beheld  the  moon  walking  in  brightness, 


OMNirOTEx\CE  OF  THE  DEITV.  65 

and  the  innumerable  host  of  stars — overpowered  vvilli  a  sense 
of  his  own  insignificance,  and  the  greatness  of  Divine  conde- 
scension, he  exclaimed,  "  O  Lord !  what  is  man,  that  thou 
art  mindful  of  him,  or  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  shouldst 
visit  him !" 

Again,  this  subject  is  also  calculated  to  inspire  us  with 
REVERENCE  and  VENERATION  of  God.  Profouud  veneration 
of  the  Divine  Being  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  religious 
worship  and  obedience.  But,  in  order  to  reverence  God 
aright,  we  must  know  him ;  and,  in  order  to  acquire  the  true 
knowledge  of  him,  we  must  contemplate  him  through  the 
medium  of  those  works  and  dispensations,  by  which  he  dis- 
plays the  glories  of  his  nature  to  the  inhabitants  of  our  world. 
I  have  already  exhibited  a  few  specimens  of  the  stupendous 
operations  of  his  power,  in  that  portion  of  the  system  of  the 
universe  which  lies  open  to  our  inspection ;  and  there  is, 
surely,  no  mind  in  which  the  least  spark  of  piety  exists,  but 
must  feel  strong  emotions  of  reverence  and  awe,  at  the  thought 
of  that  almighty  and  incomprehensible  Being,  who  impels  the 
huge  masses  of  the  planetary  globes  with  so  amazing  a  rapi- 
dity through  the  sky,  and  who  has  diversified  the  voids  of 
space  with  so  vast  an  assemblage  of  magnificent  worlds.  Even 
those  manifestations  of  Deity  which  are  confined  to  the  globe 
we  inhabit,  when  attentively  considered,  are  calculated  to 
rouse,  even  the  unthinking  mind,  to  astonishment  and  awe. 
The  lofty  mountains,  and  expansive  plains,  the  mass  of  waters 
in  the  mighty  ocean,  the  thunders  rolling  along  the  sky,  the 
lightnings  flashing  from  cloud  to  cloud,  the  hurricane  and  the 
tempest,  the  volcano  vomiting  rivers  of  fire,  and  the  earth- 
quake shaking  kingdoms,  and  levelling  cities  with  the  ground 
— all  proclaim  the  majesty  of  Him,  by  whom  the  elements  of 
nature  are  arranged  and  directed,  and  seem  to  address  the  sons 
of  men  in  language  like  this  :  "  The  Lord  reigneth,  he  is 
clothed  with  majesty;  at  his  wrath  the  earth  trembles;  a  fire 
goeth  before  him,  and  burneth  up  his  enemies." — "  Let  all  the 
earth  fear  the  Lord,  let  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  stand 
in  awe  of  him." 

There  is  one  reason,  among  others,  why  the  bulk  of  man- 
kind feel  so  little  veneration  of  God,  and  that  is,  that  they 
seldom  contemplate,  with  fixed  attention,  "  the  operations  of 
his  hands."  If  we  wish  to  cherish  this  sublime  sentiment  in 
our  hearts,  we  must  familiarize  our  minds  to  frequent  excur- 
sions over  all  those  scenes  of  creation  and  providence,  which 
the  volume  of  nature,  and  the  volume  of  inspiration,  unfold  to 
view.     We  must  endeavour  to  assist  our  conceptions  of  the 


56  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

grandeur  of  these  objects,  by  every  discovery  which  has  been, 
or  may  yet  be  made,  and  by  every  mode  of  illustration  by 
which  a  sublime  and  comprehensive  idea  of  the  particular 
object  of  contemplation  may  be  obtained.  If  we  would  wish 
to  acquire  some  definite,  though  imperfect  conception  of  the 
physical  extent  of  the  universe,  our  minds  might  be  assisted 
by  such  illustrations  as  the  following  : — Light  flies  from  the 
sun  with  a  velocity  of  nearly  two  hundred  thousand  miles  in 
a  moment  of  time,  or  about  one  million,  four  hundred  thousand 
times  swifter  than  the  motion  of  a  cannon  ball.  Suppose  that 
one  of  the  highest  order  of  intelligences  is  endowed  with  a 
power  of  rapid  motion  superior  to  that  of  light,  and  with  a 
corresponding  degree  of  intellectual  energy;  that  he  has  been 
flying,  without  intermission,  from  one  province  of  creation  to 
another,  for  six  thousand  years,  and  will  continue  the  same 
rapid  course  for  a  thousand  million  of  years  to  come  ;  it  is 
highly  probable,  if  not  absolutely  certain,  that,  at  the  end  of 
this  vast  tour,  he  would  have  advanced  no  farther  than  "  the 
suburbs  of  creation" — and  that  all  the  magnificent  systems  of 
material  and  intellectual  beings  he  had  surveyed,  during  his 
rapid  flight,  and  for  such  a  length  of  ages,  bear  no  more  pro- 
portion to  the  whole  empire  of  Omnipotence,  than  the  smallest 
grain  of  sand  does  to  all  the  particles  of  matter  of  the  same 
size  contained  in  ten  thousand  worlds.  Nor  need  we  enter- 
tain the  least  fear,  that  the  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  Creator's 
power,  conveyed  by  such  a  representation,  exceeds  the  bounds 
of  reality.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  fall  almost  infinitely 
short  of  it.     For,  as  the  poet  has  justly  observed — 

"  Cnn  man  conceive  beyond  what  God  can  do  ?" 

Were  a  seraph,  in  prosecuting  the  tour  of  creation  in  the 
manner  now  stated,  ever  to  arrive  at  a  limit  beyond  which  no 
further  displays  of  the  Divinity  could  be  perceived,  the  thought 
would  overwhelm  his  faculties  with  unutterable  anguish  and 
horror;  he  would  feel,  that  he  had  now,  in  some  measure, 
comprehended  all  the  plans  and  operations  of  Omnipotence, 
and  that  no  further  manifestations  of  the  divine  glory  remained 
to  be  explored.  But  we  may  rest  assured,  that  this  can  never 
happen  in  the  case  of  any  created  intelligence.  We  have 
every  reason  to  believe,  both  from  the  nature  of  an  Infinite 
Being,  and  from  the  vast  extent  of  creation  already  explored, 
that  the  immense  mass  of  material  existence,  and  the  endless 
variety  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings  with  which  the 
universe  is  replenished,  are  intended  by  Jehovah,  to  present 


OMNIPOTENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  57 

to  his  rational  offspring,  a  shadow^  an  emhlem^  or  a  representa- 
tion (in  so  far  as  finite  extended  existence  can  be  a  representa- 
tion) of  the  infinite  perfections  of  his  nature,  which  would 
otherwise  have  remained  for  ever  impalpable  to  all  subordi- 
nate intelligences. 

la  this  manner,  then,  might  we  occasionally  exercise  our 
minds  on  the  grand  and  diversified  objects  which  the  universe 
exhibits ;  and,  in  proportion  as  we  enlarge  the  sphere  of  our 
contemplations,  in  a  similar  proportion  will  our  views  of  God 
himself  be  extended,  and  a  corresponding  sentiment  of  venera- 
tion impressed  upon  the  mind.  For  the  soul  of  man  cannot 
reverence  a  mere  abstract  being,  that  was  never  manifested 
through  a  sensible  medium,  however  many  lofty  terms  may 
be  used  to  describe  his  perfections.  It  reverences  that  ineilk- 
ble  Being,  who  conceals  himself  behind  the  scenes  of  creation, 
through  the  medium  of  the  visible  display  he  exhibits  of  his 
power,  wisdom,  and  beneficence,  in  the  economy  of  nature, 
and  in  the  records  of  revelation.  Before  the  universe  was 
formed,  Jehovah  existed  alone,  possessed  of  every  attribute 
which  he  now  displays.  But,  had  only  one  solitary  intelli- 
gence been  created,  and  placed  in  the  infinite  void,  without  a 
material  substratum  beneath  and  around  him,  he  could  never 
have  been  animated  with  a  sentiment  of  profound  veneration 
for  his  Creator ;  because  no  objects  existed  to  excite  it,  or  to 
show  that  his  invisible  Maker  was  invested  with  those  attri- 
butes which  he  is  now  known  to  possess.  Accordingly  we 
find,  in  the  sacred  writings,  that,  when  a  sentiment  of  reverence 
is  demanded  from  the  sons  of  men,  those  sensible  objects 
which  are  calculated  to  excite  the  emotion  are  uniformly  ex- 
hibited. "  Fear  ye  not  me,  saith  the  Lord  ?  Will  ye  not 
tremble  at  my  presence,  who  have  placed  the  sand  for  the 
bound  of  the  sea,  by  a  perpetual  decree,  that  it  cannot  pass  it; 
and  though  the  waves  thereof  toss  themselves,  yet  they  can- 
not prevail ;  though  they  roar,  yet  can  they  not  pass  over  it  ?" 
"  Who  would  not  fear  thee,  O  King  of  nations  !  Thou  art 
the  true  God,  and  an  everlasting  King.  Thou  hast  made  the 
earth  by  thy  power,  thou  hast  established  the  world  by  thy 
wisdom,  thou  hast  stretched  out  the  heavens  by  thy  discretion. 
When  thou  utterest  thy  voice  there  is  a  noise  of  waters  in  the 
heavens,  thou  causest  the  vapours  to  ascend  from  the  ends  of 
the  earth,  thou  makest  lightnings  with  rain,  and  bringest  forth 
the  winds  out  of  thy  treasuries."* 

But  however  enlarged  and  venerable  conceptions  of  God 

*  Jerem.  x.  7 — 13. 


5S  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

we  may  derive  from  the  manifestations  of  his  power,  tliey 
must  fall  infinitely  short  of  what  is  due  to  a  Being  of  boundless 
perfection.  For  there  may  be  attributes  in  the  Divine  Essence, 
of  which  we  cannot  possibly  form  the  least  conception — attri- 
butes which  cannot  be  shadowed  forth  or  represented  by  any 
portion  of  the  material  or  intellectual  world  yet  discovered 
by  us,  or  by  all  the  mighty  achievements  by  which  human 
redemption  was  eflected — attributes  which  have  not  yet  been 
displayed,  in  their  effects,  to  the  highest  orders  of  intelligent 
existence.  And,  therefore,  as  that  excellent  philosopher  and 
divine,  the  honourable  Mr.  Boyle,  has  well  observed,  "  Our 
ideas  of  God,  however  so  great,  will  rather  express  the  great- 
ness of  our  veneration,  than  the  immensity  of  his  perfections  ; 
and  the  notions  worthy  the  most  intelligent  men,  are  far  short 
of  being  worthy  the  incomprehensible  God — the  brightest 
idea  we  can  frame  of  God  being  infinitely  inferior,  and  no 
more  than  a  parhelion*  in  respect  of  the  sun ;  for  though  that 
meteor  is  splendid,  and  resembles  the  sun,  yet  it  resides  in  a 
cloud,  and  is  not  only  much  beneath  the  sun  in  distance,  but 
inferior  in  bigness  and  splendour." 

In  short,  were  we  habitually  to  cherish  that  profound  vene- 
rntion  of  God  which  his  works  are  calculated  to  inspire,  with 
what  humility  would  we  approach  the  presence  of  this  august 
Fring!  with  what  emotions  of  awe  would  we  present  our 
adorations  !  and  with  what  reverence  would  we  talk  of  his 
inscrutable  purposes  and  incomprehensible  operations  !  We 
would  not  talk  about  him,  as  some  writers  have  done,  with 
the  same  ease  and  indifference  as  a  mathematician  would  talk 
about  the  properties  of  a  triangle,  or  a  philosopher  about  the 
effects  of  a  mechanical  engine :  nor  would  we  treat  with  a 
spirit  of  levity,  any  of  the  solemn  declarations  of  his  word,  or 
the  mighty  movements  of  his  providence.  We  would  be  ever 
ready  to  join  with  ardour  in  the  sublime  devotions  of  the 
inspired  writers,  "Great  and  marvellous  are  thy  works,  Lord 
God  Almighty,  just  and  true  are  thy  M-ays,  thou  King  of 
saints !  Who  would  not  fear  thee,  O  Lord,  and  glorify  thy 
name  ?  Let  all  the  earth  fear  the  Lord,  let  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  world  stand  in  awe  of  him." 

Lastly,  The  views  we  have  taken  of  the  omnipotence  and 

*  A  par]idio7i,  or  mock-sun,  is  a  meteor  in  the  form  of  a  very  bright 
light  appearing  on  one  side  of  the  sun,  and  somewhat  resembling  the 
appearance  of  that  luminary.  This  phenomenon  is  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the  sun's  ravs  from  a 
watery  cloud.  Sometimes  three  or  four  of  these  parhelia,  all  of  them 
bearing  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  real  sun,  have  been  seen  at  one 
time. 


OMNIPOTENCE   OF  THE  DEITY.  59 

grandeur  of  the  Deity,  are  calculated  to  inspire  us  with  hope 
and  CONFIDENCE  in  the  prospect  of  that  eternal  existence 
which  lies  before  us.  The  period  of  our  existence  in  this 
terrestrial  scene  will  soon  terminate,  and  those  bodies,  through 
which  w^e  now  hold  a  correspondence  with  the, visible  crea- 
tion, crumble  into  dust.  The  gradual  decay,  and  the  ultimate 
dissolution  of  human  bodies,  present  a  scene  at  which  reason 
stands  aghast ;  and,  on  a  cursory  survey  of  the  chambers  of 
the  dead,  it  is  apt  to  exclaim,  in  the  language  of  despair, 
"Can  these  dry  bones  live?"  A  thousand  difficulties  crowd 
upon  the  mind  which  appear  repugnant  to  the  idea,  that 
"beauty  shall  again  spring  out  of  ashes,  and  life  out  of  the 
dust."  But,  when  we  look  abroad  to  the  displays  of  Divine 
power  and  intelligence,  in  the  wide  expanse  of  creation,  we 
perceive,  that 

"  Almighty  God 
Has  done  much  more  ;  nor  is  his  arm  impair'd 
Through  length  of  days. — And  what  he  can,  he  will ; 
His  faithfulness  stands  bound  to  see  it  done." — Blair. 

We  perceive  that  he  has  created  systems  in  such  vast  pro- 
fusion, that  no  man  can  number  them.  The  worlds  every 
moment  under  his  superintendence  and  direction  are  unques- 
tionably far  more  numerous  than  all  the  human  beings  who 
have  hitherto  existed,  or  will  yet  exist  till  the  close  of  time. 
And  if  he  has  not  only  arranged  the  general  features  of  each 
of  these  worlds,  and  established  the  physical  laws  by  which 
its  economy  is  regulated,, but  has  also  arranged  the  diversified 
circumstances,  and  directs  the  minutest  movements  of  the 
myriads  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  existences  it  contains, 
we  ought  never  for  a  moment  to  doubt,  that  the  minutest  par- 
ticles of  every  human  body,  however  widely  separated  from 
each  other,  and  mingled  with  other  extraneous  substances,  are 
known  to  Him  whose  presence  prevades  all  space  ;  and  that 
all  the  atoms  requisite  for  the  construction  of  the  resurrec- 
tion-body will  be  reassembled  for  this  purpose  ''by  the 
energy  of  that  mighty  power,  whereby  he  is  able  to  subdue 
all  things  to  himself."  If  we  suppose  that  a  number  of  human 
beings,  amout^ting  to  three  hundred  thousand  millions,  shall 
start  from  the  grave  into  new  life  at  the  general  resurrection, 
and  that  the  atoms  of  each  of  these  bodies  are  just  now  under 
the  special  superintendence  of  the  Almighty — and  that,  at  least, 
an  equal  number  of  worlds  are  under  his  particular  care  and 
direction — the  exertions  of  power  and  intelligence,  in  the 
.  former  case,  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  greater  than  what  is 


60  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

requisite  in  tlie  latter.  To  a  Being  possessed  of  infinite 
power,  conjoined  with  boundless  intelligence,  the  superin- 
tendence of  countless  atoms,  and  of  countless  worlds,  is 
equally  easy,  where  no  contradiction  is  implied.  For,  as  the 
poet  has  weU  observed, — 

"  He  summons  into  being  with  like  ease 
A  whole  creation  and  a  single  grain." 

And  since  this  subject  tends  to  strengthen  our  hope  of  a  re- 
surrection from  the  dead,  it  is  also  calculated  to  inspire  us 
with  confidence  in  the  prospect  of  those  eternal  scenes  which 
will  burst  upon  the  view,  at  the  dissolution  of  all  terrestrial 
things.  Beyond  the  period  fixed  for  the  conflagration  of  this 
world,  "a  wide  and  unbounded  prospect  lies  before  us:"  and 
though,  at  present,  "shadows,  clouds,  and  darkness  rest  upon 
it,"  yet  the  boundless  magnificence  of  the  Divine  empire 
which  science  has  unfolded,  throws  a  radiance  over  the 
scenes  of  futurity,  which  is  fraught  with  consolation,  in  the 
view  of  "  the  wreck  of  matter,  and  the  crush  of  worlds."  It 
opens  to  us  a  prospect  of  perpetual  improvement  in  know- 
ledge and  felicity  ;  it  presents  a  field  in  which  the  human 
faculties  may  be  for  ever  expanding,  for  ever  contemplating 
new  scenes  of  grandeur  rising  to  the  view,  in  boundless  per- 
spective, through  an  interminable  succession  of  existence.  It 
convinces  us,  that  the  happiness  of  the  eternal  state  will  not 
consist  in  an  unvaried  repetition  of  the  same  perceptions  and 
enjoyments,  but  that  new  displays  of  the  Creator's  glory  will 
be  continually  bursting  on  the  astonished  mind,  world  without 
end.  And  as  we  know,  that  the  same  beneficence  and  care 
which  are  displayed  in  the  arrangements  of  systems  of  worlds, 
are  also  displayed  in  supporting  and  providing  for  the  smallest 
microscopic  animalculae,  we  have  no  reason  to  harbour  the 
least  fear,  lest  we  should  be  overlooked  in  the  immensity  of 
creation,  or  lost  amidst  the  multiplicity  of  those  works  among 
which  the  Deity  is  incessantly  employed.  For,  as  he  is  om- 
n'qjresent.,  his  Essence  prevades,  actuates,  and  supports  the 
whole  frame  of  universal  nature,  and  all  the  beings  it  contains, 
so  that  he  is  as  intimately  present  with  every  created  being, 
whether  sensitive  or  intellectual,  as  that  being  is  to  itself  And 
as  he  is  omniscient^  he  is  conscious  of  every  movement 
that  can  arise  in  the  material  system,  and  of  every  thought 
and  purpose  that  can  pervade  the  world  of  intellectual  exist- 
ence,— and  consequently,  his  superintendence  and  care  must 
extend  to  every  creature  he  has  formed.  Therefore,  though 
"  ttie  elements  shall  melt  with  fervent  heat,  and  the  earth  and 


WISDOM  OF  THE  DEITY.  61 

all  the  works  therein  be  dissolved,  yet  we,  accordmg  to  his 
promise,  look  for  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth,  wherein 
dwelleth  righteousness." 

SECTION  III. 

OF  THE  WISDOM  AND  INTELLIGENCE  OF  THE  DEITY. 

fi\  surveying  the  system  of  nature  with  a  Christian  and  a 
philosophic  eye,  it  may  be  considered  in  different  points  of 
view.  It  may  be  viewed  either  as  displaying  the  power  and 
magnificence  of  the  Deity  in  the  immense  quantity  of  mate- 
rials of  wliic^  it  is  composed,  and  in  the  august  machinery  and 
movements  by  which  its  economy  is  directed; — or,  as  mani- 
festing his  wisdom,  in  the  nice  adaptation  of  every  minute 
circumstance  to  the  end  it  was  intended  to  accomplish ; — or, 
as  illustrating  his  unbounded  beneficence  in  the  provision 
which  is  made  for  the  accommo'clation  and  happiness  of  the 
numerous  tribes  of  sentient  and  intelligent  beings  it  contains. 
Having,  in  the  preceding  section,  endeavoured  to  exhibit  some 
of  those  objects  which  evince  the  omnipotence  of  Deity,  and 
the  pious  emotions  they  are  calculated  to  excite,  1  shall  now 
offer  a  few  popular  illustrations  of  Divine  wisdom,  as  displayed 
in  the  arrangements  of  the  material  world — which  shall  chiefly 
be  confined  to  those  objects  which  are  most  prominent  and 
obvious  to  the  vulgar  eye. 

Wisdom  is  that  perfection  of  an  intelligent  agent,  by  which 
he  is  enabled  to  select  and  employ  the  most  proper  means  in 
order  to  accomplish  a  good  and  important  end.  It  includes 
the  idea  of  knowledge  or  intelligence,  but  may  be  distinguished 
from  it.  Knowledge  is  opposed  to  ignorance,  wdsdom  is  op- 
posed to  folly  or  error  in  conduct.  As  applied  to  God,  it  may 
be  considered  as  comprehending  the  operations  of  his  omni- 
science and  benevolence ;  or,  in  other  words,  his  knowledge 
to  discern,  and  his  disposition  to  choose  those  means  and  ends 
which  are  calculated  to  promote  the  order  and  the  happiness 
of  the  universe. 

The  wisdom  of  God  is,  doubtless,  displayed  in  every  ar- 
rangement he  has  made  throughout  all  the  provinces  of  his 
immense  and  eternal  kingdom,  however  far  they  may  be  re- 
moved from  the  sphere  of  human  observation.  But  it  is  only 
in  those  parts  of  the  system  of  nature  which  lie  open  to  our 
particular  investigation,  that  the  traces  of  this  perfection  can 
be  distincdy  perceived.  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of 
God's  wisdom,  as  well  as  of  his  power.     The  planetary  sys- 

6 


62  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

tern — that  portion  of  the  heavens  with  which  we  are  best  ac- 
quainted— displays  both  the  magnificence  and  the  skill  of  its 
Divine  Author,— in  the  magnitudes,  distances,  revolutions, 
proportions,  and  uses  of  the  various  globes  of  which  it  is 
composed,  and  in  the  diversified  apparatus  by  which  light  and 
darkness  are  alternately  distributed.  The  sun,  an  immense 
luminous  world,  by  far  the  largest  body  in  the  system,  is 
placed  in  the  centre.  No  other  position  would  have  suited 
for  an  equable  distribution  of  illumination  and  heat  through 
the  different  parts  of  the  system.  Around  him,  at  different 
distances,  eleven  primary  planets  revolve,  accompanied  with 
eighteen  secondaries  or  moons, — all  in  majestic  order  and 
harmony,  no  one  interrupting  the  movements  of  another,  but 
invariably  keeping  the  paths  prescribed  them,  and  performing 
their  revolutions  in  their  appointed  times.  To  all  these  re- 
volving globes,  the  sun  dispenses  motion,  light,  heat,  fertility, 
and  other  unceasing  energies,,  for  the  comfort  and  happiness 
of  their  respective  inhabitants — without  which,  perpetual 
sterility,  eternal  winter,  and  eternal  night,  would  reign  over 
every  region  of  our  globe,  and  throughout  surrounding  worlds. 
The  distance  at  which  the  heavenly  bodies,  particularly  the 
sun,  are  placed  from  the  earth,  is  a  manifest  evidence  of  Di- 
vine wisdom.  If  the  sun  were  much  nearer  us  than  he  is  at 
present,  the  earth,  as  now  constituted,  would  be  wasted  and 
parched  with  excessive  heat ;  the  waters  would  be  turned  into 
vapour,  and  the  rivers,  seas,  and  oceans,  would  soon  disappear, 
leaving  nothing  behind  them  but  frightful  barren  dells  and 
gloomy  caverns ;  vegetation  would  completely  cease,  and  the 
tribes  of  animated  nature  languish  and  die.  On  the  other  hand, 
were  the  sun  much  farther  distant  than  he  now  is,  or  were  his 
bulk,  or  the  influence  of  his  rays  diminished  one  half  of  what 
tli^v  now  are,  the  land  and  the  ocean  would  soon  become  one 
frozen  mass,  and  universal  desolation  and  sterility  would  over- 
spread the  fair  face  of  nature;  and  instead  of  a  pleasant  and 
comfortable  abode,  our  globe  would  become  a  frightful  desert, 
a  state  of  misery  and  perpetual  punishment.*     But  herein  is 

*  It  forms  no  objection  to  these  remarks,  that  caloric,  or  the  matter  of 
heat,  does  not  altogether  depend  upon  the  direct  influence  of  the  solar 
rays.  The  substance  of  caloric  may  be  chiefly  connected  with  the  con- 
stitulion  of  the  globe  we  inhabit.  But  still  it  is  quite  certain,  that  the 
earth,  as  presc7itly  constituted,  would  suffer  effects  most  disastrous  to  sen- 
tient beings,  were  it  removed  much  nearer  to,  or  much  farther  from  the 
central  luminary.  Those  planets  which  are  removed  several  hundreds  of 
millions  of  miles  farther  from  the  sun  than  our  globe,  may  possibly  expe- 
rience a  degree  of  heat  much  greater  than  ours  ;  but,  in  this  case,  the  con- 
stitution of  the  soUd  parts  of  these  globes,  and  of  their  surrounding  atmo- 
spheres, must  be  very  different  from  what  obtains  in  the  physical  arrange- 
ments of  our  globe. 


WISDOM  OF  THE  DEITY.  63 

the  wisdom  of  God  displayed,  that  he  has  formed  the  sun  of 
such  a  determinate  size,  and  placed  it  at  such  a  convenient 
distance,  as  not  to  annoy,  but  to  refresh  and  cheer  us,  and  to 
enliven  the  soil  with  its  genial  influence ;  so  that  we  plainly 
perceive,  to  use  the  language  of  the  prophet,  that  "He  hath 
established  the  world  by  his  wisdom,  and  stretched  out  the 
heavens  by  his  understanding." 

The  rotation  of  the  several  planetary  globes  around  their 
axes,  to  produce  the  alternate  succession  of  day  and  night, 
strikingly  demonstrates  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  their 
great  Author.  Were  the  earth  and  the  other  planetary  worlds 
destitute  of  a  diurnal  motion,  only  one  half  of  their  surfaces 
could  be  inhabited,  and  the  other  half  would  remain  a  dark 
and  cheerless  desert.  The  sun  would  be  the  only  heavenly 
orb  which  would  be  recognized  by  the  inhabitants  of  each  re- 
spective world,  as  existing  in  the  universe,  and  that  scene  of 
grandeur  which  night  unfolds  in  the  boundless  expanse  of  the 
sky,  would  be  forever  veiled  from  their  view.  For,  it  appears 
to  be  one  grand  design  of  the  Creator,  in  giving  these  bodies 
a  diurnal  motion,  not  only  to  cheer  their  inhabitants  with  light 
and  warmth,  and  the  gay  colouring  produced  by  the  solar 
rays ;  but  also  to  open  to  them  a  prospect  of  other  portions 
of  his  vast  dominions,  which  are  dispersed  in  endless  variety 
throughout  the  illimitable  regions  of  space,  in  order  that  they 
may  acquire  a  more  sublime  impression  of  the  glory  of  his 
kingdom,  and  of  his  eternal  power  and  Godhead.  But  were 
perpetual  day  to  irradiate  the  planets,  it  would  throw  an 
eternal  and  impenetrable  veil  over  the  glories  of  the  sky,  be- 
hind which  the  magnificent  operations  of  Jehovah's  power 
would  be  in  a  great  measure  concealed.  It  is  this  circum- 
stance which  we  should  consider  as  the  principal  reason  why 
a  rotary  motion  has  been  impressed  on  the  planetary  globes ; 
and  not  merely  that  a  curtain  of  darkness  might  be  thrown 
around  their  inhabitants  during  the  repose  of  sleep,  as  in  the 
world  in  which  we  dwell.  For,  in  some  of  the  other  plane- 
tary worlds  belonging  to  our  system,  the  intelligent  beings 
with  which  they  are  peopled  may  stand  in  no  need  of  that 
nocturnal  repose  which  is  necessary  for  man;  their  physical 
powers  may  be  incapable  of  being  impaired,  and  their  mental 
energies  may  be  in  perpetual  exercise.  And  in  some  of  those 
bodies  which  are  surrounded  with  an  assemblage  of  rings  and 
moons,  as  the  planet  Saturn,  the  diversified  grandeur  of  their 
celestial  phenomena,  in  the  absence  of  the  sun,  may  present 
a  scene  of  contemplation  and  enjoyment  far  more  interesting 
than  all  the  splendours  of  their  noon-day.     Besides,  had  the 


64  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

planets  no  motion  round  their  axes,  and  were  both  tlieir  hemi- 
splieres  supposed  to  be  peopled  with  inhabitants,  their  physi- 
cal slate  and  enjoyments  would  be  as  opposite  to  each  other, 
as  if  they  lived  under  the  government  of  two  disiinct  inde- 
pendent beings.  While  the  one  class  was  basking  under  the 
splendours  of  perpetual  day,  the  other  would  be  involved  in 
all  the  horrors  of  an  everlasting  night.  While  the  one  hemi- 
sphere would  be  parched  with  excessive  heat,  the  other  would 
be  bound  in  the  fetters  of  eternal  ice ;  and  in  such  a  globe  as 
ours,  the  motion  of  the  tides,  the  ascent  of  the  vapours,  the 
currents  of  the  atmosphere,  the  course  of  the  winds,  the  be- 
nign influences  of  the  rains  and  dews,  and  a  thousand  other 
movements,  wdiich  produce  so  many  salutary  and  beneficial 
effects,  would  be  completely  deranged.  Hence  we  find,  tliat 
in  all  the  planetary  bodies  on  which  spots  have  been  discover- 
ed, a  rotary  motion  actually  exists,*  in  the  secondary  as  well 
as  in  the  primary  planets,  and  even  in  the  sun  itself,  the  centre 
and  the  mover  of  the  whole  :  in  which  arrangement  of  the 
Almighty  Creator,  the  evidences  of  wisdom  and  design  are 
strikingly  apparent. 

This  amazing  scene  of  Divine  workmanship  and  skill, 
which  the  planetary  system  exhibits,  we  have  reason  to  be- 
lieve is  multiplied  and  diversified  to  an  indefinite  extent, 
throughout  all  the  other  systems  of  creation,  displayi::g  to  the 
intelligences  of  every  region  '•'  the  manifold  wisdom  of  God." 
For  there  can  be  no  question,  that  every  star  we  now  behold, 
either  by  the  naked  eye  or  by  the  help  of  a  telescope,  is  the 
centre  of  a  system  of  planetary  worlds,  where  the  agency  of 
God,  and  his  unsearchable  wisdom,  may  be  endlessly  varied, 
and  perhaps  more  strikingly  displayed  than  even  in  the  sys- 
tem to  which  we  belong.  These  vast  globes  of  light  could 
never  have  been  designed  merely  to  shed  a  few  glimmering 
rays  on  our  far  distant  world  :  for  the  ten  thousandth  part  of 
them  has  never  yet  been  seen  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
since  the  Mosaic  creation,  except  by  a  few  astronomers  of  the 
past  and  the  present  age  ;  and  the  light  of  many  of  them,  in  all 
probability,  has  never  yet  reached  us,  and  perhaps  never  will, 
till  the  period  of  "  the  consummation  of  all  terrestrial  things." 
They  were  not  made  in  vain:  for  such  a  supposition  would  be 

*  On  the  planet  Uranus,  or  Herschel,  no  spots  or  inequalities  of  sur- 
face have  been  discovered,  on  account  of  its  great  distance  from  the  earth  ; 
but  spots  have  been  discovered  on  the  planets  Saturn,  Jupiler,  Mars,  and 
Venus,  by  which  their  diurnal  rotations  have  been  ascertained.  There 
can  be  no  doubt,  however,  lliat  Uranus  rotates  on  an  axis  as  well  as  the 
other  planets,  although  its  distance  prevents  us  Iruni  detcruiiniiig  tliia 
point  by  actual  observation. 


WISDOM  OF  THE  DEITY.  65 

inconsistent  with  every  idea  we  can  form  of  the  attributes  of  a 
Being  of  infinite  perfection.  They  were  not  intended  merely 
to  diversify  the  voids  of  infinite  space  with  a  useless  splendour, 
which  has  no  relation  to  intellectual  natures  :  for  this  would 
give  us  a  most  distorted  and  inconsistent  idea  of  the  character, 
of  Him  vvlio  is  "the  only-wise  God;"  and  we  are  told  by  an 
authority  which  cannot  be  questioned,  that  "  by  his  wisdom 
he  made  the  heavens,  and  stretched  them  out  by  his  under- 
standing." The  only  rational  conclusion,  therefore,  which 
can  be  deduced,  is,  that  they  are  destined  to  distribute  illumi- 
nation and  splendour,  vivifying  influence  and  happiness,  among 
incalculable  numbers  of  intelligent  beings,  of  various  degrees 
of  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual  excellence.  And  wherever 
the  Creator  has  exerted  his  almighty  energies  in  the  produc- 
tion of  sensitive  and  intellectual  natures,  we  may  rest  assured, 
that  there  also  his  infinite  wisdom  and  intelligence,  in  an  end- 
less variety  of  arrangements,  contrivances,  and  adaptations, 
are  unceasingly  displayed. 

But,  after  all,  whatever  evidences  of  contrivance  and  design 
the  celestial  globes  may  exhibit,  it  is  not  in  the  heavens  that 
the  most  striking  displays  of  Divine  wisdom  can  be  traced  by 
the  inhabitants  of  our  world.  It  is  only  a  few  general  rela- 
tions and  adaptations  that  can  be  distinctly  perceived  among 
the  orbs  of  the  firmament ;  though,  in  so  far  as  we  are  able  to 
trace  the  purposes  which  they  subserve,  the  marks  of  beauty, 
order,  and  design,  are  uniformly  apparent.  But  we  are  placed 
at  too  great  a  distance  from  the  orbs  of  heaven,  to  be  able  to 
investigate  the  particular  arrangements  which  enter  into  the 
physical  and  moral  economy  of  the  celestial  worlds.  Were 
we  transported  to  the  surface  of  the  planet  Jupiter,  and  had  an 
opportunity  of  surveying,  at  leisure,  the  regions  of  that  vast 
globe,  and  the  tribes  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  existence  which 
compose  its  population — of  contemplating  the  relations  of  its 
moons  to  the  pleasure  and  comfort  of  its  inhabitants — the 
constitution  of  its  atmosphere  as  to  its  reflective  and  refractive 
powers,  in  producing  a  degree  of  illumination  to  compensate 
for  the  great  distance  of  that  planet  from  the  sun — its  adapta- 
tion to  the  functions  of  animal  life — the  construction  of  the 
visual  organs  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  degree  of  sensibility 
they  possess,  corresponding  to  the  quantity  of  light  received 
from  the  sun — the  temperature  of  the  surface  and  atmosphere 
of  this  globe,  corresponding  to  its  distance  from  the  central 
source  of  heat,  and  to  the  physical  constitution  of  sensitive 
beings — in  short,  could  we  investigate  the  relations  which  in- 
animate nature,  in  all  its  varieties  and  sublimities,  bears  to  the 

6* 


66  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

necessities  and  the  happiness  of  the  animated  existences  that 
traverse  its  different  regions,  we  should,  doubtless,  behold  a 
scene  of  Divine  wisdom  and  intelligence,  far  more  admirable 
and  astonishing  than  even  that  which  is  exhibited  in  our  sub- 
lunary world.  But  since  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  investigate 
the  economy  of  other  worlds,  while  we  are  chained  down  to 
this  terrestrial  sphere,  we  must  direct  our  attention  to  those 
arrangements  and  contrivances  in  the  constitution  of  our  own 
globe,  which  lie  open  to  our  particular  inspection,  in  order  to 
perceive  more  distinctly  the  bene^i^olent  designs  of  Him  '^in 
whom  we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being."  And  here  an 
attentive  observer  will  find,  in  almost  every  object,  when 
minutely  examined,  a  display  of  goodness  and  intelligence, 
which  will  constrain  him  to  exclaim,  "  O  the  depth  of  the 
riches,  both  of  the  wisdom  and  the  knowledge  of  God !" 

Wisdom,  considered  as  consisting  in  contrivance,  or  the 
selection  of  the  most  proper  means  in  order  to  accomplish  an 
important  end,  may  be  exemplified  and  illustrated  in  a  variety 
of  familiar  objects  in  the  scene  of  nature. 

The  earth  on  which  we  tread  was  evidently  intended  by 
the  Creator  to  support  man  and  other  animals,  along  with 
their  habitations,  and  to  furnish  those  vegetable  productions 
which  are  necessary  for  their  subsistence  ;  and,  accordingly, 
he  has  given  it  that  exact  degree  of  consistency  which  is  re- 
quisite for  these  purposes.  Were  it  much  harder  than  it  now 
is — were  it,  for  example,  as  dense  as  a  rock,  it  would  be 
incapable  of  cultivation,  and  vegetables  could  not  be  produced 
from  its  surface.  Were  it  softer  it  would  be  insufficient  to 
support  us,  and  we  should  sink  at  every  step,  like  a  person 
walking  in  a  quagmire.  No  buildings,  such  as  those  we  now 
construct,  could  have  been  supported,  and  no  conveyances, 
such  as  coaches  and  steam  carriages,  could  have  moved  along 
its  surface.  Had  this  circumstance  not  been  attended  to  in 
its  formation,  the  earth  would  have  been  rendered  useless  as 
a  habitable  world  for  all  those  animated  beings  which  traverse 
its  different  regions.  The  exact  adjustment  of  the  solid  parts 
of  our  globe  to  the  nature  and  necessities  of  the  beings  which 
inhabit  it,  is  therefore  an  instance  and  an  evidence  of  ivisdom. 

The  diversity  of  surface  which  it  every  where  presents,  in 
the  mountains  and  vales  with  which  it  is  variegated,  indicates 
the  same  benevolent  contrivance  and  design.  If  the  earth 
were  divested  of  its  mountains,  and  its  surface  every  where 
uniformly  smooth,  there  would  be  no  rivers,  springs,  or  foun- 
tains; for  water  can  flow  only  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  place; 
the  vegetable  tribes  would  droop  and  languish ;  man  and  other 


MOUNTAINS. COLOURS.  67 

animals  would  be  deprived  of  what  is  necessary  for  their  ex-* 
istence  and  comfort ;  we  should  be  destitute  of  many  useful 
stones,  minerals,  plants,  and  trees,  wliich  are  now  produced 
on  the  surface  and  in  the  interior  of  mountains;  the  sea  itself 
would  become  a  stagnant  marsh,  or  overflow  tlie  land  ;  and 
the  whole  surface  of  nature  in  our  terrestrial  sphere  would 
present  an  unvaried  scene  of  dull  uniformity.  Those  pictur- 
esque and  sublime  scenes  which  fire  the  imagination  of  the 
poet,  and  which  render  mountainous  districts  so  pleasing  to 
the  philosophic  traveller,  would  be  completely  withdrawn; 
and  all  around,  when  compared  with  such  diversified  land- 
scapes, would  appear  as  fatiguing  to  the  eye  as  the  vast  soli- 
tudes of  the  Arabian  deserts,  or  the  dull  monotony  of  the 
ocean.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  admirable  distribution  of 
hills  and  mountains  over  the  surface  of  our  globe,  a  variety  of 
useful  and  ornamental  effects  is  produced.  Their  lofty  sum- 
mits are  destined  by  Providence  to  arrest  the  vapours  which 
float  in  the  regions  of  the  air;  their  internal  cavities  form  so 
many  spacious  basins  for  the  reception  of  water  distilled  from 
the  clouds  ;  they  are  the  original  sources  of  springs  and  rivers, 
which  water  and  fertilize  the  earth ;  they  form  immense  maga- 
zines, in  which  are  deposited  stones,  metals,  and  minerals, 
which  are  of  so  essential  service  in  the  arts  that  promote  the 
comfort  of  human  life  ;  they  serve  for  the  production  of  a  vast 
variety  of  herbs  and  trees ;  they  arrest  the  progress  of  storms 
and  tempests;  they  afford  shelter  and  entertainment  to  various 
animals  which  minister  to  the  wants  of  mankind  : — in  a  word, 
they  adorn  and  embellish  the  face  of  nature — they  form  thou- 
sands of  sublime  and  beautiful  landscapes,  and  afford  from  their 
summits  the  most  delightful  prospects  of  the  plains  below.  All 
these  circumstances  demonstrate  the  consunniiate  wisdom  of  the 
Great  Architect  of  nature,  and  lead  us  to  conclude,  that  moun- 
tains, so  far  from  being  rude  excrescences  of  nature,  as  some 
have  asserted,  form  an  essential  part  in  the  constitution,  not 
only  of  our  globe,  but  of  all  habitable  worlds.  And  this  con- 
clusion is  confirmed,  so  far  as  our  observation  extends,  with 
regard  to  the  moon,  and  several  of  the  planetary  bodies  which 
belong  to  our  system,  whose  surfaces  are  found  to  be  diversi- 
fied by  sublime  ramifications  of  mountain  scenery  ;  which  cir- 
cumstance forms  one  collateral  proof,  among  many  others, 
that  ihey  are  the  abodes  of  sentient  and  intellectual  beings. 

Again,  the  colouring  which  is  spread  over  the  face  of  nature 
indicates  the  wisdom  of  the  Deity.  It  is  essential  to  the  pre- 
sent mode  of  our  existence,  and  it  was  evidently  intended  by 
the  Creator,  that  we  should  be  enabled  easily  to  recognize  the 


68  CHRISTIAN    THILOSOPHER. 

forms  and  properties  of  the  various  objects  with  which  we 
are  surrounded.  But  were  the  objects  of  nature  destitute  of 
colour,  or  were  the  same  unvaried  hue  spread  over  the  face 
of  creation,  we  should  be  destitute  of  all  the  entertainments 
of  vision,  and  be  at  a  loss  to  distinguish  one  object  from  an- 
other. We  should  be  unable  to  distinguish  rugged  precipices 
from  fruitful  hills — naked  rocks  from  human  habitations — 
the  trees  from  the  hills  that  bear  them — and  tjie  tilled  from 
the  untilled  lands.  "  We  should  hesitate  to  pronounce 
whether  an  adjacent  inclosure  contains  a  piece  of  pasturage, 
a  plot  of  arable  land,  or  a  field  of  corn ;  and  it  would  require 
a  little  journey,  and  a  minute  investigation;  to  determine  such 
a  point.  We  could  not  determine  whether  the  first  person 
we  met  were  a  soldier  in  his  regimentals,  or  a  swain  in  his 
Sunday  suit ;  a  bride  in  her  ornaments,  or  a  widow  in  her 
w^eeds."  Such  would  have  been  the  aspect  of  nature,  and 
such  the  inconveniences  to  which  we  should  have  been  sub- 
jected, had  God  allowed  us  light,  \vithout  the  distinction  of 
colours.  We  could  have  distinguished  objects  only  by  intri- 
cate trains  of  reasoning,  and  by  circumstances  of  time,  place, 
and  relative  position.  And  to  what  delays  and  perplexities 
should  we  have  been  reduced,  had  we  been  obliged  every  mo- 
ment to  distinguish  one  thing  from  another  by  reasoning .'' 
Our  whole  life  must  then  have  been  employed  rather  in  study 
than  in  action ;  and  after  all,  we  must  have  remained  in  eter- 
nal uncertainty  as  to  many  things  which  are  now  quite  ob- 
vious to  every  one  as  soon  as  he  opens  his  eyes.  We  could 
neither  have  communicated  our  thoughts  by  writing,  nor  have 
derived  instruction  from  others  through  the  medium  of  books; 
for  it  is  the  contrast  of  different  colours  which  enables  us  to 
distinguish  the  letters,  words,  and  sentences,  in  a  written  or 
printed  book — so  that  we  should  now  have  been  almost  as 
ignorant  of  the  transactions  of  past  ages,  as  we  are  of  the 
events  which  are  passing  in  the  planetary  worlds ;  and,  con- 
sequently, we  could  never  have  enjoyed  a  written  revelation 
from  Heaven,  nor  any  other  infallible  guide  to  direct  us  in  the 
path  to  happiness,  if  the  Almighty  had  not  distinguished  the 
rays  of  light,  and  painted  the  objects  around  us  with  a  diver- 
sity of  colours, — so  essentially  connected  are  the  minutest 
and  the  most  magnificent  works  of  Deity.  But  now,  in  the 
present  constitution  of  things,  colour  characterizes  the  class 
to  which  every  individual  belongs,  and  indicates,  upon  the 
first  inspection,  its  respective  quality.  Every  object  wears  its 
peculiar  livery,  and  has  a  distinguishing  mark  by  which  it  is 
characterized. 


COLOURS.— WATERS.  69 

The  different  hues  which  are  spread  over  the  scenery  of 
the  world  are  also  higlily  ornamental  to  the  face  of  nature, 
and  afford  a  variety  of  pleasures  to  the  eye  and  the  imagina- 
tion. It  is  this  circumstance  which  adds  a  charm  to  the  lields, 
the  valleys,  and  the  hills,  the  lofty  mountain,  the  winding 
river,  and  the  expansive  lake ;  and  which  gives  a  splendour 
and  sublimity  to  the  capacious  vault  of  heaven.  Colour  is, 
therefore,  an  essential  requisite  to  every  world  inhabited  by 
sensitive  beings ;  and  we  know  that  provision  has  been  made 
for  diffusing  it  throughout  all  the  globes  which  may  exist  in 
tl>e  distant  regions  which  our  telescopes  have  penetrated  ;  for 
the  light  which  radiates  from  the  most  distant  stars  is  capable 
of  being  separated  into  the  prismatic  colours,  similar  to  those 
which  are  produced  by  the  solar  rays  ;  which  furnishes  a  pre- 
sumptive proof,  that  they  are  intended  to  accomplish  designs, 
in  their  respective  spheres,  analogous  to  those  which  light 
subserves  in  our  terrestrial  habitation, — or,  in  other  words, 
that  they  are  destined  to  convey  to  the  minds  of  sentient  be- 
ings, impressions  of  light  and  colour,  and  consequently,  beings 
susceptible  of  such  impressions  must  reside  within  the  sphere 
or  more  immediate  influence  of  these  far  distant  orbs. 

Tiie  same  benevolent  design  is  apparent  in  the  general 
colour  which  prevails  throughout  the  scene  of  suilunary  nature. 
Had  the  fields  been  clothed  with  hues  of  a  deep  red,  or  a 
brilliant  white,  the  eye  would  have  been  dazzled  with  the 
splendour  of  their  aspect.  Had  a  dark  blue  or  a  black 
colour  generally  prevailed,  it  would  have  cast  a  universal 
gloom  over  the  face  of  nature.  But  an  agreeable  green 
holds  the  medium  between  these  two  extremes,  equally  re- 
mote from  a  dismal  gloom  and  excessive  splendour,  and 
bears  such  a  relation  to  the  structure  of  the  eye,  that  it  re- 
freshes instead  of  tiring  it,  and  supports  instead  of  diminishing 
its  force.  At  the  same  time,  though  one  general  colour  pre- 
vails over  the  landscape  of  the  earth,  it  is  diversified  by  an 
admirable  variety  of  shades,  so  that  every  individual  object  in 
the  vegetable  world  can  be  accurately  distinguished  from 
another ;  thus  producing  a  beautiful  and  variegated  appear- 
ance over  the  whole  scenery  of  nature.  "  Wiio  sees  not,  in 
all  these  things,  that  the  hand  of  the  Lord  hath  wrought  this  ?" 

If  from  the  earth  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  2vaters^  we 
shall  perceive  similar  traces  of  the  exquisite  wisdom  and 
skill  of  the  Author  of  nature.  Water  is  one  of  the  most 
essential  elementary  parts  in  the  constitution  of  our  globe, 
without  which  the  various  tribes  of  beings  which  now  people 
it  could  not  exist.     It  supplies  a  necessary  beverage  to  man. 


70  CHRISTIAN  rHILOSOrilER. 

and  to  all  the  animals  that  people  the  earth  and  the  air.     It 
forms  a  solvent  for  a  great  variety  of  solid  bodies;  it  is  the 
element  in  which  an  inlinitnde  of  organized  beings  pass  their 
existence ;  it  acts  an   important  part  in  conveying  life  and 
nourishment  to  all   the  tribes  of  the  vegetable   kingdom,  and 
gives   salubrity  to  the  atmospherical   regions.     Collected   m 
immense  masses  in  the  basins  of  the  sea,  it  serves  as  a  vehicle 
for  ships,  and  as  a  medium  of  communication  between  people 
of  the  most  distant  lands.     Carried  along  with  a  progressive 
motion  over  the  beds  of  streams  and  of  rivers,  it  gives  a  brisk 
impulse  to  the  air,  and  prevents  the  unwholesome  stagnation 
of  vapours ;  it  receives  the  filth  of  populous  cities,  and  rids 
them  of  a  thousand  nuisances.     By  its  impulsion,  it  becomes 
the  mover  of  a  multitude  of  machines ;  and,  when  rarefied 
into  steam,  it  is  transformed  into  one  of  the  most  powerhil 
and  useful  agents   under  the  dominion  of  man.     All  which 
beneficial    effects    entirely   depend    on   the   exact  degree   of 
density,  or  specific  gravity,  which    the  Creator  has   given  to 
its  constituent  parts.     Had  it  been  much  more  rarefied  than  it 
is,  it  would  have  been  altogether  unfit  to  answer  the  purposes 
now  specified  ;  the  whole  face  of  the  earth  would  have  been 
a   dry   and   barren  waste;  vegetable   nature   could   not  have 
been  nourished  ;  our  floating   edifices  could  not  have  been 
supported;    the    lightest  bodies  would    have   sunk,  and   all 
regular  intercourse  with  distant  nations  would  have  been  pre- 
vented.    On  the  other  hand,  had  its  parts  been  much  denser 
than  they  are — for  example,  had  they  been  of  the  consistency 
of  a  tliin  jelly,  similar  disastrous  effects  would  have  inevitably 
followed  ;  no  ships  could   have  ploughed  tiie  ocean — no  re- 
freshing beverage  would  have   been  supplied   to   the  animal 
tribes — the   absorbent    vessels   of  trees,  herbs,  and   flowers, 
would  have  been  unable  to  imbibe  the  moisture  requisite  for 
their  nourishment,  and  we   should    thus   have  been   deprived 
of  all  tl^  beneficial  effects  we  now  derive  from  the  use  of  that 
liquid  element,  and  of  all  the  diversified  scenery  of  the  vege- 
table  world.     But   the   configuration   and    consistency  of  its 
parts  are  so  nicely  adjusted  to  the  constitution  of  the  other 
elements,  and   to'  the  wants   of  the  sensitive  and   vegetable 
tribes,  as  exactly  to  subserve  the  ends  intended  in  the  system 
of  nature. 

Water  has  been  ascertained  to  be  a  compound  body,  formed 
by  the  union  of  two  different  kinds  of  air — oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  It  has  the  property  of  becoming,  in  certain  cases, 
much  lighter  than  air;  though,  in  its  natural  liquid  state,  it  is 
eight  hundred  times  heavier  than  that  fluid  ;  and  has  also  the 


WATERS.  71 

property  of  afterwards  resuming  its  natural  weight.  Were  it 
not  for  this  property,  evaporation  could  not  be  produced ; 
and,  consequently,  no  clouds,  rain,  nor  dew,  could  be  formed, 
to  water  and  fertilize  the  different  regions  of  the  earth.  But 
in  consequence  of  this  wonderful  property,  the  ocean  becomes 
an  inexhaustible  cistern  to  our  world.  From  its  expansive 
surface  are  exhaled  those  vapours  which  supply  the  rivers,  and 
nourish  the  vegetable  productions  of  every  land.  ''The  air 
and  the  sun,"  says  an  elegant  writer,  "  constitute  the  mighty 
engine  which  works  without  intermission  to  raise  the  liquid 
treasure;  while  the  clouds  serve  as  so  many  aqueducts  to 
convey  them  along  the  atmosphere,  and  distribute  them  at 
seasonable  periods,  and  in  regular  proportions,  through  all 
the  regions  of  the  globe." 

Notwithstanding  the  properties  now  stated,  motion  was 
still  requisite,  to  insure  all  the  advantages  we  now  derive 
from  the  liquid  element.  Had  the  whole  mass  of  waters  been 
in  a  stagnant  state,  a  thousand  inconveniences  and  disastrous 
consequences  would  have  inevitably  ensued.  But  the  all- 
wise  Creator  has  impressed  upon  its  various  masses  a  circu- 
lating motion,  which  preserves  its  purity,  and  widely  extends 
its  beneficial  influence.  The  rills  pour  their  liquid  stores 
into  the  rivers  ;  the  rivers  roll  their  watery  treasures  into  the 
ocean :  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  by  a  libratory  motion,  roll 
backwards,  and  forwards  every  twelve  hours,  and  by  means 
of  currents  and  the  force  of  winds,  are  kept  in  constant 
agitation.  By  the  solar  heat,  a  portion  of  these  waters  is 
carried  up  into  the  atmosphere,  and,  in  the  form  of  clouds,  is 
conveyed  by  the  winds  over  various  regions  ;  till  at  last  it 
descends  in  rain  and  dew  to  supply  the  springs  "  which  run 
among  the  hills."  So  that  there  is  a  constant  motion  and 
circulation  of  the  watery  element,  that  it  may  serve  as  an 
agent  for  carrying  forward  the  various  processes  of  nature, 
and  for  ministering  to  the  wants  of  man  and  beast. 

In  fine,  were  the  waters  in  a  state  of  perpetual  stagnation, 
the  filth  of  populous  cities  would  be  accumulated  to  a  most 
unwholesome  degree  ;  the  air  would  be  filled  with  putrid  ex- 
halations, and  the  vegetable  tribes  would  languish  and  die. 
Were  they  deprived  of  the  property  of  being  evaporated,  (in 
which  state  they  occupy  a  space  sixteen  hundred  times 
greater  than  in  their  liquid  state,)  rain  and  dew  could  never 
be  produced,  and  the  earth  would  be  turned  into  "a  dry  and 
parched  wilderness;"  neither  grass  nor  corn  could  be  suffi- 
ciently dried  to  lay  up  for  use ;  our  clothes,  when  washed, 
could  never  be  dried ;  and  a  variety  of  common  operations, 


72  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

v.'hicli  now  conduce  to  our  convenience  and  comfort,  could 
never  be  canied  on.  But  the  infinite  wisdom  of  the  Creator, 
foreseeing  all  the  effects  which  can  possibly  arise  from  these 
principles  of  nature,  has  effectually  provided  against  such 
(hsasters,  by  arranging  all  things,  in  number,  weight,  and 
measure,  to  subserve  the  beneficial  ends  for  which  ihey  were 
ordained,  ''lie  causeth  the  vapours  to  ascend  from  the  ends 
of  the  earth ;"  "  he  sendeth  the  springs  into  the  valleys, 
which  run  among  the  hills.  They  give  drink  to  every  beast 
of  the  field  :  the  wild  asses  quench  their  thirst.  By  them 
the  fowls  of  heaven  have  their  habitation,  which  sing  among 
tiie  branches.  He  watereth  the  hills  from  his  chambers:  the 
earth  is  satisfied  with  the  fruit  of  his  works." 

Let  us  now  attend  to  the  atmosphere^  in  the  constitution  of 
which  the  wisdom  of  God  is  no  less  conspicuous  than  iu  the 
other  departments  of  nature. 

The  atmosphere  is  one  of  the  most  essential  appendages  to 
the  globe  we  inhabit,  and  exhibits  a  most  striking  scene  of 
Divine  skill  and  omnipotence.  The  term  atmosphere  is  applied 
to  the  whole  mass  of  fluids,  consisting  of  air,  vapours,  electric 
fluid,  and  other  matters,  which  surround  the  earth  to  a  certain 
height.  This  mass  of  fluid  matter  gravitates  to  the  earth,  re- 
volves with  it  in  its  diurnal  rotation,  and  is  carried  along 
wiih  it  in  its  course  round  the  sun  every  year.  Jt  has  been 
computed  to  extend  about  forty-five  miles  above  the  earth's 
surface,  and  it  presses  on  the  earth  with  a  force  proportioned 
to  its  height  and  density.  From  experiments  made  by  the 
barometer,  it  has  been  ascertained,  that  it  presses  with  a 
weight  of  about  fifteen  pounds  on  every  square  inch  of  the 
earth's  surface;  and,  therefore,  its  pressure  on  the  body  of  a 
middle-sized  man  is  equal  tb  about  thirty-two  thousand  pounds, 
or  fourteen  tons  avoirdupois,  a  pressure  which  would  be  in- 
supportable, and  even  fatal,  were  it  not  equal  in  every  part, 
and  counterbalanced  by  the  spring  of  the  air  within  us.  The 
pressure  of  the  whole  atmosphere  upon  the  earth  is  computed 
to  be  equivalent  to  that  of  a  globe  of  lead  sixty  miles  in 
diameter,  or  about  5.000,000,000,000,000  tons  ;  that  is,  the 
whole  mass  of  air  which  surrounds  the  globe  compresses  (he 
earth  with  a  force  or  power  equal  to  that  o(five  thousand  mil- 
lions of  millions  of  tons*  This  amazing  pressure  is,  how- 
ever, essentially  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  present 
constitution  of  our  globe,  and  of  the  animated  beings  which 
dwell  on  its  surface.     It  prevents  the  heat  of  the  sun  from 

*  See  Appendix,  No.  II. 


ATMOSTHERE.  73 

converting  water,  and  all  other  fluids  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
into  vapour  ;  and  preserves  the  vessels  of  all  organized  beings 
in  due  tone  and  vigour.  Were  the  atmospherical  pressure 
entirely  removed,  the  elastic  fluids  contained  in  the  iiner  ves- 
sels of  men  and  other  animals  would  inevitably  burst  them, 
and  life  would  become  extinct;*  and  most  of  the  substances 
on  the  face  of  the  earth,  particularly  liquids,  would  be  dissi- 
pated into  vapour. 

The  atmosphere  is  now  ascertained  to  be  a  compound  sub- 
stance, formed  of  two  very  different  ingredients,  termed  oxygen 
gas  and  nitrogen  gas.  Of  one  hundred  measures  of  atmo- 
spheric air,  twenty-one  are  oxygen,  and  seventy-nine  nitrogen. 
The  one,  namely,  oxygen,  is  the  principle  of  combustion,  and 
the  vehicle  of  heat,  and  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  support 
of  animal  life,  and  is  the  most  powerful  and  energetic  agent  in 
nature;  the  other  is  altogether  incapable  of  supporting  either 
flame  or  animal  life.  Were  we  to  breathe  oxygen  air,  without 
any  mixture  or  alloy,  our  animal  spirits  would  be  raised,  and 
the  fluids  in  our  bodies  would  circulate  with  greater  rapidity ; 
but  we  should  soon  infallibly  perish  by  the  rapid  and  un- 
natural accumulation  of  heat  in  the  animal  frame.  If  the 
nitrogen  were  extracted  from  the  air,  and  the  whole  atmo- 
sphere contained  nothing  but  oxygen,  or  vital  air,  combustion 
would  not  proceed  in  that  gradual  manner  which  it  now  does, 
but  with  the  most  dreadful  and  irresistible  rapidity:  not  only 
wood  and  coals,  and  other  substances  now  used  for  fuel,  but 
even  stones,  iron,  and  other  metallic  substances,  would  blaze 
with  a  rapidity  which  would  carry  destruction  through  the 
whole  expanse  of  nature.  If  even  the  proportions  of  the  two 
airs  were  materially  altered,  a  variety  of  pernicious  effects 
would  instantly  be  produced.  If  the  oxygen  were  less  in 
quantity  than  it  now  is,  fire  would  lose  its  strength,  candles 
would  not  diffuse  a  sufficient  light,  and  animals  would  perform 

*  The  necessity  of  the  atmospherical  pressure,  for  the  comfort  and  pre- 
servation of  animal  life,  might  be  illustrated  by  the  effects  experienced  by 
those  who  have  ascended  to  the  summits  of  very  high  mountains,  or  who 
have  been  carried  to  a  great  height  above  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  bal- 
loons. Acosta,  in  his  relation  of  a  journey  among  the  mountains  of  Peru, 
states,  that  "  he  and  his  companions  were  surprised  with  such  extreme 
pangs  of  straining  and  vomiting,  not  without  casting  up  of  blood  too,  and 
with  so  violent  a  distemper,  that  they  would  undoubtedly  have  died  had 
they  remained  two  or  three  hours  longer  in  that  elevated  situation." 
Count  Zambeccari,  and  his  companions,  who  ascended  in  a  balloon,  on 
the  7th  November,  1783,  to  a  great  height,  found  their  hands  and  feet  so 
swelled,  that  it  was  necessary  for  a  surgeon  to  make  incisions  in  the  skin." 
In  both  the  cases  now  stated,  the  persons  ascended  to  so  great  a  height, 
that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  was  not  sufHcienl  to  counterbalance 
liie  pressure  of  the  tiuids  of  the  body. 

7 


74  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

their  vital  functions  with  tlie  utmost  difficiiliy  and  pain.  On 
the  other  hand,  were  the  nitrogen  diminished, and  the  oxygen 
increased,  the  air  taken  in  by  respiration  wouUl  be  more 
stimulant,  and  the  circulation  of  the  animal  fluids  would  be- 
come accelerated;  but  the  tone  of  the  vessels  thus  stimulated 
to  increased  action  would  be  destroyed  by  too  great  an  excite- 
ment, and  the  body  would  inevitably  waste  and  decay. 
Again,  were  the  oxygen  completely  extracted  from  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  nothing  but  nitrogen  to  remain,  fire  and  flame 
would  be  extinguished,  and  instant  destruction  would  be  car- 
ried throughout  all  the  departments  of  vegetable  and  animated 
nature.  For  a  lighted  taper  will  not  burn  for  a  single  moment 
m  nitrogen  gas,  and  if  an  animal  be  plunged  into  it,  it  is  in- 
stantly suffocated. 

Again,  not  only  the  extraction  of  any  one  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  alteration  of  their  respective 
proportions,  but  even  the  slightest  increase  or  diminution  of 
their  specijic  gravity  would  be  attended  with  the  most  dis- 
astrous effects.  The  nitrogen  is  found  to  be  a  little  lighter 
than  common  air,  which  enables  it  to  rise  towards  the  higher 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.  In  breathing,  the  air  which  is 
evolved  from  the  lungs,  at  every  expiration,  consists  chiefly 
of  nitrogen,  which  is  entirely  unfit  to  be  breathed  again,  and 
therefore  rises  above  our  heads  before  the  next  inspiration. 
Now,  had  nitrogen,  instead  of  being  a  little  lighter,  been  a 
slight  degree  heavier  than  common  air,  or  of  the  same  specific 
gravity,  it  would  have  accumulated  on  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
and  particularly  in  our  apartments,  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
have  produced  diseases,  pestilence,  and  death,  in  rapid  suc- 
cession. But  being  a  little  lighter  than  the  surrounding  air, 
it  flies  upwards,  and  we  never  breathe  it  again,  till  it  enters 
into  new  and  salutary  combinations.  Such  is  the  benevolent 
skill  which  the  Author  of  nature  has  displayed,  for  pro- 
moling  the  comfort  and  preservation  "  of  every  thing  that 
lives.* 

*  The  necessity  of  atmospherical  air  for  the  support  of  life  was  strikingly 
exemplified  in  the  fate  of  the  unhappy  men  who  died  in  the  Black-hole  of 
Calcutta.  On  the  20ih  of  June,  1756,  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
one  hundred  and  forty-six  men  were  forced,  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet, 
into  a  dungeon  only  eighteen  feet  square.  They  had  been  but  a  few 
minutes  confined  in  this  infernal  prison,  before  every  one  fell  into  a  perspi- 
ration so  profuse,  that  no  idea  can  be  formed  of  it.  This  brought  on  a 
raging  thirst,  the  most  difficult  respiration,  and  an  outrageous  delirium. 
Such  was  the  horror  of  their  situation,  that  every  insult  that  could  be 
devised  against  the  guard  without,  and  all  the  opprobrious  names  that  the 
viceroy  and  his  officers  could  be  loaded  with,  were  repeated,  to  provoke 
the  guard  to  fire  upon  them,  and  terminate  their  sufferings.     Before  eleven 


ATMOSPHERE.  75 

Further,  loere  tht  air  coloured^  or  were  its  particles  much 
larger  than  they  are,  we  could  never  obtain  a  distinct  view  of 
any  other  object.  The  exhalations  which  rise  from  the  earth, 
being  rendered  visible,  would  disfigure  the  rich  landscape  of 
the  universe,  and  render  life  disagreeable.  But  the  Almighty, 
by  rendering  the  air  invisible,  has  enabled  us  not  only  to  take 
a  delightful  and  distinct  survey  of  tlie  objects  that  surround 
ns,  but  has  veiled  from  our  view  the  gross  humours  inces- 
santly perspired  from  animal  bodies,  the  filth  exhaled  from 
kitchens,  streets,  and  sewers,  and  every  other  object  that 
would  excite  disgust.  Again,  ?oere  the  different  portions  of  the 
atmosphere  completely  stationary,  and  not  susceptible  of  agita- 
tion, all  nature  would  soon  be  thrown  into  confusion.  The 
vapours  which  are  exhaled  from  the  sea  by  the  heat  of  the 
sun  would  be  suspended,  and  remain  for  ever  fixed  over  those 
places  from  whence  they  arose.  For  want  of  this  agitation 
of  the  air,  which  now  scatters  and  disperses  the  clouds  over 
every  region,  the  sun  would  constantly  scorch  some  districts, 
and  be  for  ever  hid  from  others ;  the  balance  of  nature  would 
be  destroyed  •,  navigation,  as  it  has  hitherto  been  carried  on 
by  the  agency  of  winds,  would  be  useless,  and  we  could  no 
longer  enjoy  the  productions  of  different  climates.  In  fine, 
were  the  atmosphere  capable  of  being  frozen,  or  converted 
into  a  solid  mass,  as  all  other  fluids  are,  (and  we  know  no 
reason  M'hy  it  should  not  be  subject  to  congelation,  but  the 
will  of  the  Creator,)  the  lives  of  every  animal  in  the  air,  the 
waters,  and  the  earth,  would,  in  a  few  moments,  be  completely 
extinguished.  But  the  admirable  adjustment  of  every  cir- 
cumstance, in  relation  to  this  useful  element,  produces  all  the 
beneficial  effects  which  we  now  experience,  and  strikingly 
demonstrates,  that  the  intelligent  Contriver  of  all  things  is 
"  wonderful  in  counsel  and  excellent  in  working." 

From  the  instances  now  stated,  we  may  plainly  perceive, 
that  if  the  Almighty  had  not  a  particular  regard  to  the  hap- 
piness of  his  intelligent  offspring,  and  to  the  comfort  of  every 
animated  existence,  or,  if  he  wished  to  inflict  summary 
punishment  on  a  wicked  world,  he  could  easily  effect,  by  a 
very  slight  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere,  the 
entire  destruction  of  the  human  race,  and  the  entire  conflagra- 
tion of  the  great  globe  they  inhabit, — throughout  all  its  ele- 

o' clock  the  same  evening,  one-third  of  the  men  were  dead  ;  and  before  six 
next  morning,  only  twenty-three  came  out  aUve,  but  most  of  them  in  a 
high  putrid  fever.  All  tliese  dreadful  effects  were  occasioned  by  the  want 
of^atmospheric  air,  and  by  their  breathing  a  superabundant  quantity  of  the 
nitrogen  emitted  from  their  lungs. 


76  CHRISTIAN  rillLOSOPilER. 

mentary  regions.  He  has  only  to  extract  one  of  its  consti- 
tuent parts,- — the  nitrogen  from  the  oxygen  gas,— and  the 
grand  catastrophe  is  at  once  accomplished.  With  what  a 
striking  propriety  and  emphasis,  then,  do  the  inspired  writers 
declare,  tJiat  '■'  in  Him  we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being ;" 
and  that  "in  His  hand  is  the  soul  of  every  living  thing,  and 
the  breath  of  all  mankind." 

A  great  variety  of  other  admirable  properties  is  possessed 
by  the  atmosphere,  of  which  I  shall  briefly  notice  only  the 
following: — It  is  the  vehicle  of  smells^  by  which  we  become 
acquainted  with  the  qualities  of  the  food  which  is  set  before 
us,  and  learn  to  avoid  those  places  which  are  damp,  unwhole- 
some, and  dangerous.  It  is  the  medium  of  sounds^  by  means 
of  which  knowledge  is  conveyed  to  our  minds.  Its  undula- 
tions, like  so  many  couriers,  run  for  ever  backwards  and  for- 
wards, to  convey  our  thoughts  to  others,  and  theirs  to  us  ; 
and  to  bring  news  of  transactions  which  frequently  occur  at  a 
considerable  distance.  A  few  strokes  on  a  large  bell,  through 
the  ministration  of  the  air,  will  convey  signals  of  distress,  or 
of  joy,  in  a  quarter  of  a  minute,  to  the  population  of  a  city 
containing  a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  So  that  the  air 
may  be  consideied  as  the  conveyer  of  the  thoughts  of  man- 
kind, which  are  the  cement  of  society.  It  transmits  to  our 
ears  all  the  harmonies  of  music,  and  expresses  every  passion 
of  the  soul ;  it  swells  the  notes  of  the  nightingale,  and  dis- 
tributes alike  to  every  ear  the  pleasures  which  arise  from  the 
harmonious  sounds  of  a  concert.  It  produces  the  blue  colour 
of  the  sky,  and  is  the  cause  of  the  morning  and  the  evening 
twilight,  by  its  property  of  bending  the  rays  of  light,  and  re- 
flecting them  in  all  directions.  It  forms  an  essential  requisite 
for  carrying  on  all  the  processes  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and 
serves  for  the  production  of  clouds,  rain,  and  dew,  which 
nourish  and  fertilize  the  earth.  In  short,  it  would  be  impos- 
sible to  enumerate  all  the  advantages  we  derive  from  this 
noble  appendage  to  our  world.  Were  the  earth  divested  of 
its  atmosphere,  or  were  only  two  or  three  of  its  properties 
changed  or  destroyed,  it  would  be  left  altogether  unfit  for  the 
habitation  of  sentient  beings.  Were  it  divested  of  its  undu- 
lating quality,  we  should  be  deprived  of  all  the  advantages  of 
speech  and  conversation — of  all  the  melody  of  the  feathered 
songsters,  and  of  all  the  pleasures  of  music  :  and,  like  tiie 
deaf  and  dumb,  we  could  iiave  no  power  of  communicating 
our  thoughts  but  by  visible  signs.  Were  it  deprived  of  its  re- 
flective pow'Crs,  the  sun  would  appear  in  one  part  of  the  sky 
in  dazzling  brightness,  while  all  around  would  appear  as  dark 


ATMOSPHERE. 


77 


as  midnight,  and  the  stars  would  be  visible  at  noon-day. 
Were  it  deprived  of  its  refractive  powers,  instead  of  the 
gradual  approach  of  the  day  and  the  night  which  we  now 
experience — at  sunrise,  we  should  be  transported  all  at  once 
from  midnight  darkness  to  the  splendour  of  noon-day  :  and, 
at  sunset,  should  make  as  sudden  a  transition  from  the  splen- 
dours of  day  to  all  the  horrors  of  midnight,  which  would  be- 
wilder the  traveller  in  his  journey,  and  strike  the  creation 
with  amazement.  In  fine,  were  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere 
completely  extracted,  destruction  would  seize  on  all  tlie  tribes 
of  the  living  world,  throughout  every  region  of  earth,  air, 
and  sea. 

Omitting,  at  present,  the  consideration  of  an  indefinite  va- 
riety of  other  particulars,  which  suggest  themselves  on  this 
subject,  I  shall  just  notice  one  circumstance  more,  vvhich  has 
a  relation  both  to  the  waters  and  to  the  atmosphere.  It  is  a 
well  known  law  of  nature,  that  all  bodies  are  expanded  by 
heat,  and  contracted  by  cold.  There  is  only  one  exception 
to  this  law  which  exists  in  the  economy  of  our  globe,  and 
that  is,  the  expansion  of  water  in  the  act  of  freezing.  While 
the  parts  of  every  other  body  are  reduced  in  bulk,  and  their 
specific  gravity  increased  by  the  application  of  cold ;  water, 
on  the  contrary,  when  congealed  into  ice,  is  increased  in  bulk, 
and  becomes  of  a  less  specific  gravity  than  the  surrounding 
Avater,  and,  therefore,  swims  upon  the  surface.  Now,  had  the 
case  been  otherwise ;  had  water,  when  deprived  of  a  portion 
of  its  heat,  followed  the  general  law  of  nature,  and,  like  all 
other  bodies,  become  specifically  heavier  than  it  was  before, 
the  present  constitution  of  nature  would  have  been  materially 
deranged,  and  many  of  our  present  comforts,  and  even  our 
very  existence,  would  have  been  endangered.  At  whatever 
time  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  became  reduced  to  32° 
of  the  common  thermometer,  or  to  what  is  called  the  freezing 
point,  the  water  on  the  surface  of  our  rivers  and  lakes  would 
have  been  converted  into  a  layer  of  ice  ;  this  layer  would 
have  sunk  to  the  bottom  as  it  froze;  another  layer  of  ice 
would  have  been  immediately  produced,  which  would  also 
have  sunk  to  the  former  layer ;  and  so  on  in  succession,  till, 
in  the  course  of  time,  all  our  rivers,  from  the  surface  to  the 
bottom,  and  every  other  portion  of  water  capable  of  being 
frozen,  would  have  been  converted  into  solid  masses  of  ice, 
which  all  the  heat  of  summer  could  never  have  melted.  We 
should  have  been  deprived  of  most  of  the  advantages  we  now 
derive  from  the  liquid  element,  and  in  a  short  time,  the  face 
of  nature  would  have  been  transformed  into  a  frozen  chaos. 

7* 


78  CHRISTIAN   FHILOSOPHER. 

But,  in  the  existing  constitution  of  things,  all  such  dismal 
effects  are  prevented,  in  consequence  of  the  Creator  having 
subjected  the  waters  to  a  law  contrary  to  that  of  other  fluids; 
by  means  of  whicii  the  frozen  water  swims  upon  the  surface, 
and  preserves  the  cold  from  penetrating  to  any  great  depth  in 
the  subjacent  fluid ;  and  when  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  is 
increased,  it  is  exposed  to  its  genial  influence,  and  is  quickly 
changed  into  its  former  liquid  state.  How  admirably,  then, 
does  this  exception  to  the  general  law  of  nature  display  the 
inlinite  intelligence  of  the  great  Contriver  of  all  things,  and 
his  providential  care  for  the  comfort  of  his  creatures,  when 
he  arranged  and  established  the  economy  of  nature. 

VARIETY  OF  NATURE. 

As  a  striking  evidence  of  Divine  intelligence,  we  may  next 
consider  Xhot^immense  variety  ichich  the  Creator  has  intro- 
duced into  every  department  of  the  materia]  world. 

\\\  every  region  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  an  endless  mul- 
tiplicity of  objects,  all  differing  from  one  another  in  shape, 
colour,  and  motion,  present  themselves  to  the  view  of  the  be- 
liolder.  Mountains  covered  with  forests,  hills  clothed  with 
verdure,  spacious  plains  adorned  with  vineyards,  orchards,  and 
■waving  grain  ;  naked  rocks,  abrupt  precipices,  extended  vales, 
deep  dells,  meandering  rivers,  roaring  cataracts,  brooks  and 
rills,  lakes  and  gulfs,  bays  and  promontories,  seas  and  oceans, 
caverns  and  grottoes — meet  the  eye  of  the  student  of  nature, 
in  every  country,  with  a  variety  which  is  at  once  beautiful 
and  majestic.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  variety  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.,  which  pervades  all  climates,  and  almost  every  por- 
tion of  the  dry  land,  and  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean.  The 
immense  collections  of  natural  history  which  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  museum  at  Paris,  show,  that  botanists  are  already 
acquainted  with  nearly  fifty-six  thousand  different  species  of 
plants.*  And  yet,  it  is  probable  that  these  form  but  a  very 
small  portion  of  what  actually  exists,  and  that  several  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  species  remain  to  be  explored  by  the 
industry  df  future  ages  :  for  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
vegetable  world  still  remains  to  be  surveyed  by  the  scientific 
botanist.  Of  the  numerous  tribes  of  vegetable  nature  which 
flourish  in  the  interior  of  Africa  and  America,  in  the  immense 
islands  of  New  Holland,  New  Guinea,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java, 
Ceylon,  Madagascar,  and  Japan;  in  the  vast  regions  of  Tar- 

*  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  July,  1822,  p.  48. 


VARIETY  OF  NATURE.  79 

tary.  Tibet,  Siberia,  and  the  Birman  empire ;  in  the  Philip- 
pines, the  Moluccas,  the  Ladrones,  the  Carolinas,  the  Marque- 
sas, the  Society,  the  Georgian,  and  in  thousands  of  other 
islands  which  are  scattered  over  the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans 
— little  or  nothing  is  known  by  the  naturalists  of  Europe ; 
and  yet  it  is  a  fact  which  admits  of  no  dispute,  that  every 
country  hitherto  explored  produces  a  variety  of  species  of 
plants  peculiar  to  itself;  and  those  districts  in  Europe  which 
have  been  frequently  surveyed  present  to  every  succeeding 
explorer  a  new  held  of  investigation,  and  reward  his  industry 
with  new  discoveries  of  the  beauties  and  varieties  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom.  It  has  been  conjectured  by  some  naturalists, 
on  the  ground  of  a  multitude  of  observations,  that  "  there  is 
not  a  square  league  of  earth,  but  what  presents  some  one 
plant  peculiar  to  itself,  or,  at  least,  which  thrives  there  better, 
or  appears  more  beautiful,  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world."  This  would  make  the  number  of  species  of  vege- 
tables to  amount  to  as  many  millions  as  there  are  of  square 
leagues  on  the  surface  of  the  earth — that  is,  to  more  than 
tvventy-one  millions. 

Now  every  one  of  these  species  of  plants  differs  from  an- 
other, in  its  size,  structure,  form,  flowers,  leaves,  fruits,  mode 
of  propagation,  colour,  medicinal  virtues,  nutritious  qualities, 
internal  vessels,  and  the  odours  it  exhales.  They  are  of  all 
sizes,  from  the  microscopic  mushroom,  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  to  the  sturdy  oak  and  the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  and  from 
the  slender  willow  to  the  banian  tree,  under  whose  shade 
seven  thousand  persons  may  find  ample  room  to  repose.  A 
thousand  different  shades  of  colour  distinguish  the  different 
species.  Every  one  wears  its  peculiar  livery,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  its  own  native  hues ;  and  many  of  their  inherent 
beauties  can  be  distinguished  only  by  the  help  of  the  micro- 
scope. Some  grow  upright,  others  creep  along  in  a  serpen- 
tine form.  Some  flourish  for  ages,  others  wither  and  decay 
in  a  few  months  •,  some  spring  up  in  moist,  others  in  dry 
soils;  some  turn  towards  the  sun,  others  shrink  and  contract 
when  we  approach  to  touch  them.  Not  only  are  the  differ- 
ent species  of  plants  and  flowers  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  their  different  forms,  but  even  the  different  individuals 
of  the  same  species.  In  a  bed  of  tulips  or  carnations,  for  ex- 
ample, tliere  is  scarcely  a  flower  in  which  some  difference 
may  not  be  observed  in  its  structure,  size,  or  assemblage  of 
colours  ;  nor  can  any  two  flowers  he  found  in  whicli  the  shape 
and  shades  are  exactly  similar.  Of  all  the  hundred  thousand 
millions  of  plants,  trees,  herbs,  and  flowers,  with  which  our 


80  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

globe  is  variegated,  there  are  not,  perhaps,  two  individuals 
precisely  alike,  in  every  point  of  view  in  which  they  may  be 
couteniplaled ,  yea,  there  is  not,  perhaps,  a  single  leaf  in  the 
forest,  when  nunutely  examined,  that  will  not  be  found  to 
(hffer,  in  certain  aspects,  from  its  fellows.  Such  is  the  won- 
derful and  infinite  diversity  with  which  the  Creator  has 
adorned  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

His  wisdom  is  also  evidently  displayed  in  this  vast  profu- 
sion of  vegetable  nature — in  adapting  each  plant  to  the  soil 
and  situation  in  which  it  is  destined  to  flourish — in  furnishing 
it  with  those  vessels  by  which  it  absorbs  the  air  and  moisture 
on  which  it  feeds — and  in  adapting  it  to  the  nature  and  neces- 
sities of  animated  beings.  As  the  earth  teems  with  animated 
existence,  and  as  the  different  tribes  of  animals  depend  chiefly 
on  the  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  for  their  sub- 
sistence, so  there  is  an  abundance  and  a  variety  of  plants 
adapted  to  the  peculiar  constitution  of  every  individual  spe- 
cies. This  circumstance  demonstrates,  that  there  is  a  pre- 
contrived  relation  and  fitness  between  the  internal  constitution 
of  the  animal,  and  the  nature  of  the  plants  which  afford  it 
nourishment;  and  shows  us,  that  the  animal  and  the  vegetable 
kingdoms  are  the  workmanship  of  owe  and  the  same  Almighty 
Being,  and  that,  in  his  arrangements  with  regard  to  the  one, 
he  had  in  view  the  necessities  of  the  other. 

When  we  direct  our  attention  to  the  tribes  of  animated  na- 
ture^ we  behold  a  scene  no  less  variegated  and  astonishing. 
Above  fifty  thousand  species  of  animals  have  been  detected 
and  described  by  naturalists,  besides  several  thousands  of 
species  which  the  naked  eye  cannot  discern,  and  which  people 
the  invisible  regions  of  the  waters  and  the  air=  And,  as  the 
greater  part  of  the  globe  has  never  yet  been  thoroughly  ex- 
plored, several  hundreds,  if  not  thousands,  of  species  unknown 
to  the  scientific  world,  may  exist  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean, 
and  in  the  unexplored  regions  of  the  land.  All  these  species 
difli'r  from  one  another  in  color,  size,  and  shape  ;  in  the  inter- 
nal structure  of  their  bodies,  in  the  number  of  their  sensitive 
organs,  limbs,  feet,  joints,  claws,  wings,  and  fins;  in  their  dis- 
positions, faculties,  movements,  and  modes  of  subsistence. 
They  are  of  all  sizes,  from  the  mite  and  the  gnat  up  to  the 
elephant  and  the  whale,  and  from  the  mite  downwards  to  those 
invisible  animalcule,  a  hundred  thousand  of  which  would  not 
equal  a  grain  of  sand.  Some  fly  through  the  atmosphere, 
some  glide  through  the  waters,  others  traverse  the  solid  land. 
Some  walk  on  two,  some  on  four,  some  on  twenty,  and  some 
on  a  hundred  feet.     Some  have  eyes  furnished  with  two,  some 


VARIETY  OF  NATURE.  81 

with  eight,  some  with  a  hundred,  and   some  with  eig'ht  thou- 
sand distinct  transparent  globes,  for  the  purposes  of  vision,* 

Our  astonishment  at  the  variety  which  appears  in  the  ani- 
mal kingdom  is  still  further  increased,  when  we  consider  not 
only  the  diversities  which  are  apparent  in  their  external  as- 
pect, but  also  in  their  internal  structure  and  organization. 
When  we  reflect  on  the  thousands  of  movements,  adjustments, 
adaptations,  and  compensations,  which  are  requisite  in  order 
to  the  construction  of  an  animal  system,  for  enabling  it  to  per- 
form its  intended  functions  ; — when  we  consider,  that  every 
species  of  animals  has  a  system  of  organization  peculiar  to 
itself,  consisting  of  bones,  joints,  blood  vessels,  and  muscular 
motions,  diflering  in  a  variety  of  respects  from  those  of  any 
other  species,  and  exactly  adapted  to  its  various  necessities 
and  modes  of  existence  ; — and  when  we  consider  still  further, 
the  incomprehensibly  delicate  contrivances,  and  exquisite  bor- 
ings, polishings,  claspings,  and  adaptations,  which  enter  into 
the  organization  of  an  animated  being  ten  thousand  times  less 
than  a  mite ;  and  that  the  different  species  of  these  animals 
are  likewise  all  difierently  organized  from  one  another, — we 
cannot  but  be  struck  with  reverence  and  astonishment,  at  the 
intelligence  of  that  incomprehensible  Being  who  arranged  the 

*  The  eyes  of  beetles,  silk  worms,  flies,  and  several  other  kinds  of  in- 
sects, are  among  the  most  curious  and  wonderful  productions  of  tiie  God 
of  nature.  On  the  head  of  a  fly  are  two  large  protuberances,  one  on  eacii 
side ;  these  constitute  its  organs  of  vision.  The  whole  surface  of  the.-e 
protuberances  is  covered  with  a  multitude  of  small  hemispheres,  placed 
with  the  utmost  regularity  in  rows,  crossing  each  other  in  a  kind  of  latii-e- 
work.  These  little  hemispheres  have  each  of  them  a  minute  transparent 
convex  lens  in  the  middle,  each  of  which  has  a  distinct  branch  of  the  opiic 
nerve  ministering  to  it ;  so  that  the  different  lenses  may  be  considered  as 
so  many  distinct  eyes.  Mr.  Leeuwenhoek  counted  ij-22(j  in  the  two  eyes 
of  a  silk  worm,  when  in  its  fly  state  ;  3180  in  each  eye  of  a  beetle  ;  and 
8000  in  the  two  eyes  of  the  common  flu.  Mr.  Hook  reckoned  14,000  in  the 
eyes  of  a  drone  fly;  and,  in  one  of  the  eyes  of  a  dragon  fly,  there  have 
been  reckoned  13,500  of  these  lenses,  and,  consequently,  in  both  eyes, 
27,000,  every  one  of  which  is  capable  of  forming  a  distinct  image  of  any 
object,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  common  convex  glass  ;  so  that  there  are 
twenty-seven  thousand  images  formed  on  the  retma  of  this  little  animal. 
Mr.  Leeuwenhoek  having  prepared  the  eye  of  a  fly  for  that  purpose, 
placed  it  a  httle  farther  from  his  microscope  than  when  he  would  examine 
an  object,  so  as  to  leave  a  proper  focal  distance  between  it  and  the  lens  of 
his  microscope  ;  and  then  looked  through  both,  in  the  manner  of  a  tele- 
scope, at  the  steeple  of  a  church,  which  was  299  feet  high,  and  750  feet 
distant,  and  could  plainly  see  through  every  little  lens,  the  whole  steeple 
inverted,  though  not  larger  than  the  point  of  a  fine  needle;  and  then  di- 
recting it  to  a  neighbouring  house,  saw  through  many  of  these  little  hemi- 
spheres, not  only  the  front  of  the  house,  but  also  the  doors  and  windows, 
and  could  discern  distinctly,  whether  the  windows  were  open  or  shut^ 
such  an  exquisite  piece  of  Divine  mechanism  transcends  all  human  com- 
prehension. 


S2  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

organs  of  all  the  tribes  of  animated  nature,  w^ho  '^  breathed 
into  them  the  breath  of  life,"  and  who  continually  upholds 
them  in  all  their  movements ! 

Could  we  descend  into  the  subterraneous  apartments  of  the 
globe,  and  penetrate  into  those  unknown  recesses  which  lie 
towards  its  centre,  we  should  doubtless  behold  a  variegated 
scene  of  wonders,  even  in  those  dark  and  impenetrable  re- 
gions. But  all  the  labour  and  industry  of  man  have  not  hitherto 
enabled  him  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth 
than  the  six-thousandth  part  of  its  diameter,  or,  about  a  mile 
and  a  quarter :  so  that  we  must  remain  for  ever  ignorant  of 
the  immense  caverns  and  masses  of  matter  that  may  exist,  and 
of  the  processes  that  may  be  going  on,  about  its  central  re- 
gions. In  those  regions,  however,  near  the  surface,  which  lie 
within  the  sphere  of  human  inspection,  w^e  perceive  a  variety 
analogous  to  that  which  is  displayed  in  the  other  departments 
of  nature.  Here  we  find  substances  of  various  kinds  formed 
into  strata,  or  layers,  of  different  depths — earths,  sand,  gravel, 
marl,  clay,  sandstone,  freestone,  marble,  limestone,  coals,  peat, 
and  similar  materials.  In  these  strata  are  found  metals  and  ma- 
terials of  various  descriptions — salt,  nitrate  of  potash,  ammonia, 
.--iilphur,  bitumen,  platina,  gold,  silver,  mercury,  iron,  lead,  tin, 
co])per,  zinc,  nickel,  manganese,  cobalt,  antimony,  the  dia- 
nond,  rubies,  sapphires,  jaspers,  emeralds,  and  a  countless 
•\  ;triety  of  other  substances,  of  incalculable  benefit  to  mankind. 
Some  of  these  substances  are  so  essentially  requisite  for  the 
comfort  of  man,  that  without  them  he  would  soon  degenerate 
into  the  savage  state,  and  be  deprived  of  all  those  arts  which 
extend  his  knowledge,  and  which  cheer  and  embellish  the 
abodes  of  civdized  life. 

If  we  turn  our  eyes  upward  to  the  regions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, we  also  may  behold  a  spectacle  of  variegated  magnifi- 
cence. Sometimes  the  sky  is  covered  with  sable  clouds,  or 
obscured  with  mists  ;  at  other  times  it  is  tinged  with  a  variety 
of  hues,  by  the  rays  of  the  rising  or  the  setting  sun.  Some- 
times it  presents  a  pure  azure,  at  other  times  it  is  diversified 
with  a  strata  of  dappled  clouds.  At  one  time  we  behohl  the 
rainbow  rearing  its  majestic  arch,  adorned  with  all  the  colours 
of  liglit;  at  another,  the  aurora  borealis  illuminating  the  sky 
with  its  fantastic  coruscations.  At  one  time  we  behold  die 
fiery  meteor  sweeping  through  the  air,  diffusing  a  sparkling 
and  brilliant  light;  at  another,- we  perceive  the  forked  light- 
ning darting  from  the  clouds,  and  hear  the  thunders  rolling 
through  the  sky.  Sometimes  the  vault  of  heaven  appears  like 
a  boundless  desert,  particularly  about  the  time  of  the  rising 


VARIETY  OF  NATURE. 


83 


and  setting  of  the  sun  in  a  clear  sky;  and  at  other  times 
adorned  with  an  innumerable  host  of  stars,  the  blazing  comet, 
the  planets  in  their  courses,  and  with  the  moon  "  walking  in 
brightness."  In  short,  whether  we  direct  our  view  to  the 
vegetable  or  the  animal  tribes — to  the  atmosphere,  the  ocean, 
the  mountains,  the  plains,  or  the  subterranean  recesses  of  the 
globe,  we  behold  a  scene  of  beauty,  order,  and  variety^  which 
astonishes  and  enraptures  the  contemplative  mind,  and  con- 
strains us  to  join  in  the  devout  exclamations  of  the  Psalmist, 
"  Hoiu  manifold  are  thy  loorks^  O  Lord  !  In  wisdom  hast  thou 
made  them  all :  the  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches ;  so  is  the  great 
and  wide  sea,  wherein  are  things  creeping  iimwnerahle,  both 
small  and  great  beasts." 

This  countless  variety  of  objects  which  appears  throughout 
every  department  of  our  sublunary  system,  not  only  displays 
the  depths  of  Divine  wisdom,  but  also  presents  us  with  a 
faint  idea  of  the  infinity  of  the  Creator,  and  of  the  immense 
multiplicity  of  ideas  and  conceptions  which  must  have  existed 
in  the  Eternal  Mind,  when  the  fabric  of  our  globe,  and  its 
numerous  tribes  of  inhabitants,  were  arranged  and  brought 
into  existence.  And  if  every  other  world  which  floats  in  the 
immensity  of  space,  be  diversified  with  a  similar  variety  of  ex- 
istences, altogether  different  from  ours,  (as  we  have  reason  to 
believe,  from  the  variety  we  already  perceive,  and  from  the 
boundless  plans  and  conceptions  of  the  Creator,)  the  human 
mind  is  lost  and  confounded,  when  it  attempts  to  form  an 
idea  of  those  endlessly  diversified  plans,  conceptions,  and 
views,  which  must  have  existed  during  an  eternity  past  in  the 
Divine  Mind.  When  we  would  attempt  to  enter  into  the  con- 
ception of  so  vast  and  varied  operations,  we  feel  our  own  lit- 
tleness, and  the  narrow  limits  of  our  feeble  powers,  and  can 
only  exclaim,  with  the  apostle  Paul,  "  O  the  depth  of  the 
riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God !  how  un- 
searchable are  his  counsels,  and  his.ways  (of  creation  and 
providence)  past  finding  out!" 

This  characteristic  of  variet}^,  which  is  stamped  on  all  the 
works  of  Omnipotence,  is  doubtless  intended  to  gratify  the 
principle  of  curiosity,  and  the  love  of  novelty,  which  are  im- 
planted in  tlie  human  breast ;  and  thus  to  excite  rational  beings 
to  the  study  and  investigation  of  the  works  of  the  Creator ; 
that  therein  they  may  beiiold  the  glory  of  the  Divine  character, 
and  be  stimulated  to  the  exercise  of  love,  admiration,  and  re- 
verence. For,  as  the  records  of  revelation,  and  the  dispensa- 
tions of  Providence,  display  to  us  the  various  aspects  of  the 
moral  character  of  the  Deity,  so  the  diversified  phenomena, 


84  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 


and  the  multiplicity  of  objects  and  operations  which  the 
scenery  of  nature  exhibits,  present  to  us  a  specimen  of  the 
ideas^  as  it  were,  of  the  Eternal  3Iind,  in  so  far  as  they  can  be 
adumbrated  by  material  objects,  and  exhibited  to  mortals, 
through  the  medium  of  corporeal  organs. 

To  convey  an  adequate  conception  of  the  numhcr  of  these 
ideas,  as  exhibited  on  the  globe  on  which  we  live,  would 
baffle  the  arithmetician's  skill,  and  set  his  numbers  at  defiance. 
We  may,  however,  assist  our  conception  a  little  by  confining 
our  attention  to  one  department  of  nature ;  for  example,  the 
AMMAL  KINGDOM.  The  number  of  the  different  species  of 
animals,  taking  into  account  those  which  are  hitherto  undis- 
covered, and  those  which  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  can- 
not be  estimated  at  less  than  three  hundred  thousand.  Jn 
a  human  body  there  are  reckoned  about  four  hundred  and  forty- 
six  muscles,  in  each  of  which,  according  to  anatomists,  there 
are  at  least  ten  several  intentions  or  due  qualifications  to  be 
observed — its  proper  figure,  its  just  magnitude,  the  right  dis- 
position of  its  several  ends,  upper  and  lower,  the  position  of 
the  whole,  the  insertion  of  its  proper  nerves,  veins,  arteries, 
&c.,  so  that,  in  tlie  muscular  system  alone,  there  are  four 
thousand  four  hundred  and  sixty  several  ends  or  aims  to  be 
attended  to.  The  bones  are  reckoned  to  be  in  number  about 
two  hundred  and  forty-five,  and  the  distinct  scopes  or  inten- 
tions of  each  of  these  are  above  forty  ;  in  all,  about  ninety- 
eight  hundred  :  so  that  the  system  of  bones  and  muscles 
alone,  without  taking  any  other  parts  into  consideration, 
amounts  to  above  fourteen  thousand  different  intentions  or 
adaptations.  If  now  we  suppose,  that  all  the  species  of  ani- 
mals above  stated  are  differendy  constructed,  and,  taken  one 
with  another,  contain,  at  an  average,  a  system  of  bones  and 
muscles  as  numerous  as  in  the  human  body — the  number  of 
species  must  be  multiplied  by  the  number  of  different  aims  or 
adaptations,  and  the  pro^Juct  will  amount  to  4,200,000,000. — 
If  we  were  next  to  attend  to  the  many  thousands  of  blood 
vessels  in  an  animal  body,  and  the  numerous  ligaments,  mem- 
branes, humours,  and  fluids  of  various  descriptions,  the  skin 
with  its  millions  of  pores,  and  every  other  part  of  an  organical 
system,  with  the  aims  and  intentions  of  each,  we  should  have 
another  sum  of  many  hundreds  of  millions  to  be  multiplied  by 
the  former  product,  in  order  to  express  the  diversiiied  ideas 
which  enter  into  the  construction  of  the  animal  world.  And 
if  we  still  further  consider  that,  of  the  hundreds  of  millions  of 
individuals  belonging,  to  each  species,  no  two  individuals  ex- 
actly resemble  each  other — that  all  the  myriads  of  vegetables 


VARIETY  OF  NATURE.  85 

with  which  the  earth  is  covered  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  some  one  characteristic  or  another,  and  that  every 
grain  ol"  sand  contained  in  the  mountains,  and  in  the  bed  of 
the  ocean,  as  shown  by  the  microscope,  discovers  a  diiferent 
form  and  configuration  from  another — we  are  here  presented 
with  an  image  of  the  infinity  of  the  conceptions  of  Him  in 
whose  incomprehensible  mind  they  all  existed,  during  count- 
less ages,  before  the  universe  was  formed. 

To  overlook  this  amazing  scene  of  Divine  intelligence,  or 
to  consider  it  as  beneath  our  notice,  as  some  have  done — if 
it  be  not  the  characteristic  of  impiety,  is,  at  least,  the  mark  of 
a  weak  and  undiscriminating  mind.  That  man  who  disregards 
the  visible  displays  of  infinite  wisdom,  or  who  neglects  to  in- 
vestigate them  when  opportunity  offers,  acts  as  if  he  considered 
himself  already  possessed  of  a  sufficient  portion  of  intelli- 
gence, and  stood  in  no  need  of  such  sensible  assistance  to 
direct  his  conceptions  of  the  Creator.  Pride,  and  false  con- 
ceptions of  the  nature  and  design  of  true  religion,  frequently 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  that  indifference  and  neglect  with 
wdiich  the  visible  works  of  God  are  treated  by  those  who 
make  pretensions  to  a  high  degree  of  spiritual  attainments. 
The  truly  pious  man  will  trace,  with  wonder  and  delight,  the 
footsteps  of  his  Father  and  his  God,  wherever  they  appear  in 
the  variegated  scene  of  creation  around  him,  and  will  be  filled 
with  sorrow  and  contrition  of  heart,  that,  amidst  his  excur- 
sions and  solitary  walks,  he  has  so  often  disregarded  "  the 
works  of  the  Lord,  and  the  operation  of  his  hands." 

In  fine,  the  variety  which  appears  on  the  face  of  nature  not 
only  enlarges  our  conceptions  of  infinite  wisdom,  but  is  also 
the  foundation  of  all  our  discriminations  and  judgements  as 
rational  beings,  and  is  of  the  most  essential  utility  in  the 
affairs  of  human  society.  Such  is  the  variety  of  which  the 
features  of  the  human  countenance  are  susceptible,  that  it  is 
probable,  that  no  two  individuals,  of  all  the  millions  of  the 
race  of  Adam  that  have  existed  since  the  beginning  of  time, 
would  be  found  to  resemble  each  other.  We  know  no  two 
human  beings  presently  existing,  however  similar  to  each 
other,  but  may  be  distinguished  either  by  their  stature,  their 
forms,  or  the  features  of  their  faces ;  and  on  the  ground  of 
this  dissimilarity,  the  various  wheels  of  the  machine  of  society 
move  onward,  without  clashing  or  confusion.  Had  it  been 
otherwise — had  the  faces  of  men,  and  their  organs  of  speech, 
been  cast  exactly  in  the  same  mould,  as  would  have  been  the 
case  had  the  world  been  framed  according  to  the  Epicurean 
system,  by  blind  chance  directing  a  concourse  of  atoms,  it 

8 


86  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

might  liave  been  as  difficult  to  distinguish  one  human  counte- 
nance from  another,  as  to  distinguish  the  eggs  laid  by  the 
same  hen,  or  tiie  drops  of  water  which  trickle  from  the  same 
orifice ;  and  consequently,  society  would  have  been  thrown 
into  a  state  of  universal  anarchy  and  confusion.  Friends 
would  not  have  been  distinguished  from  enemies,  villains  from 
the  good  and  honest,  fathers  from  sons,  the  culprit  from  the 
innocent  person,  nor  the  branches  of  the  same  family  from 
one  another.  And  what  a  scene  of  perpetual  confusion  and, 
disturbance  would  thus  have  been  created  !  Frauds,  thefts, 
robberies,  murders,  assassinations,  forgeries,  and  injustice  of 
all  kinds,  might  have  been  daily  committed  without  the  least 
possibility  of  detection.  Nay,  were  even  the  variety  of  tones 
in  the  human  voice,  peculiar  to  each  person,  to  cease,  and  the 
hajid-writing  of  all  men  to  become  perfectly  uniform,  a  mul- 
titude of  distressing  deceptions  and  perplexities  would  be 
produced  in  the  domestic,  civil,  and  commercial  transactions 
of  mankind.  But  the  all-wise  and  beneficent  Creator  has 
prevented  all  such  evils  and  inconveniences,  by  the  character 
of  variety  which  he  has  impressed  on  the  human  species,  and 
on  all  his  works.  By  the  peculiar  features  of  his  countenance, 
every  man  may  be  distinguished  in  the  light;  by  the  tones  of 
his  voice  he  may  be  recognized  in  the  dark,  or  when  he  is 
separated  from  his  fellows  by  an  impenetrable  partition ;  and 
his  hand-writing  can  attest  his  existence  and  individuality, 
when  continents  and  oceans  interpose  between  him  and  his 
relations,  and  be  a  witness  of  his  sentiments  and  purposes  to 
future  generations. 

Thus  I  have  taken  a  very  cursory  view  of  some  evidences 
of  Divine  wisdom,  which  appear  in  the  general  constitution 
of  ihe  earthy  the  waters^  and  the  atmosphere^  and  in  the  cha- 
racteristic of  variety^  which  is  impressed  on  all  the  objects 
of  the  visible  creation.  When  these,  and  other  admirable 
arrangements  in  our  sublunary  system,  are  seriously  contem- 
plated, every  rational  and  pious  mind  will  be  disposed  to  ex- 
claim with  the  Psalmist — "There  is  none  like  unto  thee,  O 
Lord,  neither  are  there  any  works  like  unto  thy  works." — 
"  Thou  art  great,  and  dost  wondrous  things  :  thou  art  God 
alone." — "  O  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for  his  good- 
ness, and  for  his  wonderful  works  towards  the  children  of 
men !" 

When  we  consider  not  only  the  utility^  but  the  beauty  and 
grandeur  of  the  wise  arrangements  of  nature,  what  reason 
have  we  to  admire  and  adore  the  goodness  of  the  great  Author 


SUBLIMITY  OF  NATURE.  87 

of  our  existence  !  Were  all  the  diversities  of  shape  and  colour, 
of  mountains  and  vales,  of  rivers  and  lakes,  of  light  and  shade, 
wliich  now  embellish  the  various  landscapes  of  the  world,  to 
disappear,  and  were  one  unvaried  scene  perpetually  to  present 
itself  to  the  eye,  how  dull,  and  wearisome,  and  uninteresting 
would  the  aspect  of  the  universe  appear  to  an  intelligent  mind  ! 
Although  the  variegated  beauties  which  adorn  the  surface  of 
our  globe,  and  the  vault  of  heaven,  are  not  essential  to  our 
existence  as  sensitive  beings,  yet  were  they  completely  with- 
drawn, and  nothing  presented  to  the  eye  but  a  boundless 
expanse  of  barren  sands,  the  mind  would  recoil  upon  itself, 
its  activity  would  be  destroyed,  its  powers  would  be  confined, 
as  it  were,  to  a  prison,  and  it  would  roam  in  vain  amidst  the 
surrounding  waste  in  search  of  enjoyment.  Even  the  luxuries 
of  a  palace,  were  it  possible  to  procure  them  amidst  such  a 
scene  of  desolation,  would  become  stale  and  insipid,  and 
would  leave  the  rational  soul  almost  destitute  of  ideas  and  of 
mental  energy,  to  the  tiresome  round  of  a  cheerless  existence. 
But,  in  the  actual  state  of  the  world  we  live  in,  there  is  no 
landscape  in  nature,  from  the  icebergs  of  Greenland  to  the 
verdant  scenes  of  the  torrid  zone,  in  which  objects,  either  of 
sublimity  or  of  beauty,  in  boundless  variety,  are  not  presented 
to  the  view,  in  order  to  stimulate  the  mind  to  activity,  to 
gratify  its  desire  of  novelty,  and  to  elevate  its  conceptions  of 
the  beneficent  Creator. 

And  if  the  present  constitution  of  our  world  displays  so 
evident  marks  of  beauty  and  benevolent  design,  now  that  it  is 
inhabited  by  an  assemblage  of  depraved  intelligences,  and  its 
physical  aspect  deformed,  in  consequence  of  "  the  wicked- 
ness of  man" — what  transporting  beauties  and  sublimities 
must  it  have  presented,  when  it  appeared  fresh  from  the  hand 
of  its  Almighty  Maker,  and  when  all  things  were  pronounced 
by  him  to  be  very  good.  After  a  deluge  of  waters  has  swept 
away  many  of  its  primeval  beauties,  and  has  broken  and  de- 
ranged even  its  subterraneous  strata,  this  terrestrial  world 
still  presents  to  the  eye  a  striking  scene  of  beauty,  order,  and 
beneticencet  But  we  have  the  strongest  reason  to  believe, 
that,  before  sin  had  disfigured  the  aspect  of  this  lower  world, 
all  was  '*•  beauty  to  the  eye,  and  music  to  the  ear" — that  "  im- 
mortality breathed  in  the  winds,  flowed  in  the  rivers,"  and 
exhaled  from  every  plant  and  flower.  No  storms  disturbed 
the  tranquillity  of  nature,  nor  created  the  least  alarm  in  the 
breasts  of  its  holy  inhabitants.  No  earthquakes  shook  the 
ground,  nor  rent  the  foundations  of  nature.  No  volcanoes 
vomited  their  rivers  of  lava,  nor  overwhelmed  the  plains  with 


88  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

deluges  of  fire.      No  barren   deserts   of  heath  and  sand   dis- 
figured  the   rich  hiiulscape  of   the  world — no  tempests  nor 
hurricanes  tossed  the  ocean,  nor  scorching  heats  nor  piercing 
colds,  nor  pestilence  nor  disease,  annoyed  the  hunnin  frame. 
In  the  paradisiacal  state   of  the  world,  we   may  reasonably 
suppose,  that  all  the  elements  of  nature  contributed  direcdy  to 
the  pleasure  and  enjoyment  of  man,  and  of  the  other  tribes 
of  animated  nature  :  and  that  they  were  not  subjected,  as  they 
now  are,  to  the  operation  of  those  natural  agents  which  so  fre- 
quently spread  destruction  and  ruin  among  the  abodes  of  men. 
To  suppose  the  contrary  to   have  happened  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  state  of  pure  and  happy  intelligences,  and  with 
the  benignity  of  the  Creator  ;  and  would  imply,  that  God  was 
either  unwilling  or  unable  to  remove  such  physical  evils.  But 
we  cannot  suppose  it  beyond  the  limits  of  infinite  wisdom 
and  omnipotence,  to  create  and  arrange  a  world  entirely   free 
from  those  evils  and  inconveniences  which  now  flow  from  the 
operation  of  certain  physical  agents,  without,  at  the    same 
time,  supposing  that  his  power  and   intelligence  are   confined 
within  certain  bounds,  beyond  which  they  cannot  pass.    And, 
therefore,  if,  in  the  existing  constitution   of  thhigs,  the  har- 
mony of  nature  is  occasionally  disturbed,  and  its  beauty  de- 
faced, by   earthquakes,  storms,  and    tempests — we  must  re- 
member," that  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are  now  a  depraved 
race  of  mortals,  no  longer  adorned  with  primeval  purity  and 
innocence ;  and  that  the  physical  economy  of  our  globe  has 
undergone  a  certain  derangement,  corresponding  to  the  moral 
state  of  its  present  occupants.     But  since  the  earth,  even  in  its 
present  state  of  degradation  and  derangement,  presents  to  the 
view  of  every  beholder  so  many  objects  of  beauty  and  mag- 
nificence, and  so  numerous  traces  of  Divine  beneficence — we 
may  reasonably  conclude,  that  scenes  of  Divine  wisdom  and 
goodness,  far  more  glorious   and   transporting,  must  be  dis- 
played in  those  worlds  where   moral  evil  has  never  shed  its 
malign  influence,  and  where  the  inhabitants — superior   to  dis- 
ease and  death — bask  for  ever  in  the  regions  of  immortality. 
And    therefore,    however  admirable    the  displays  of  Divine 
wisdom  may  appear  in  the  sublunary  scene  around  us,  they 
must  be   considered  as  inferior  to  those  which  are  exhibited 
in  many  other  provinces  of  Jehovah's  empire,  in   so  far  as 
they  are  blended  with  those  physical  derangements  which  in- 
dicate his  displeasure  against  the  sins  of  men. 

Were  we  now  to  direct  our  attention  to  the  mechanism 
of  animated  beings,  and  to    consider  their  numberless  con- 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EYE.  89 

trivances  and  adaptations  in  their  organical  structure  and  func- 
tions, a  thousand  instances  of  exquisite  wisdom  and  design, 
still  more  striking  and  admirable,  would  crowd  upon  our 
view.  For,  although  tlie  general  fabric  of  the  world,  and  the 
immense  variety  of  objects  it  contains,  are  evident  proofs  of 
a  wise  and  intelligent  Contriver,  yet  it  is  chiefly  in  the  minute 
and  delicate  contrivances  of  organical  structures,  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  purposes  of  life,  motion,  and  enjoyment,  and  their 
relation  and  correspondence  to  the  surrounding  elements,  that 
the  consummate  skill  of  the  great  Architect  of  nature  is  most 
strikingly  perceived.  But  as  it  forms  no  part  of  my  present 
plan  to  enter  on  so  extensive  a  field  of  illustration,  on  which 
volumes  might  be  written,  I  shall  content  myself  with  merely 
stating  an  example  or  two.  My  first  example  shall  be  taken 
from 

THE   STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HUMAN  EYE. 

The  eye  .is  one  of  the  nicest  pieces  of  mechanism  which 
the  human  understanding  can  contemplate  ;  but  as  it  requires 
a  knowledge  of  its  anatomical  structure,  and  of  the  principles 
of  optics,  to  enable  us  to  appreciate  its  admirable  functions,  I 
shall  confine  myself  to  a  l^w  general  descriptions  and  re- 
marks. 

The  eye  is  nearly  of  a  globular  form.  It  consists  chiefly  of 
three  coats  and  three  humours.  The  first  or  outer  coat  is  termed 
sclerotica;  it  is  every  where  white  and  opaque,  and  is  joined, 
at  its  anterior  edge,  to  another  which  has  more  convexity 
than  any  other  part  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and,  being  ex- 
ceedingly transparent,  is  called  the  cornea.  These  two  parts 
are  perfectly  different  in  their  structure,  and  are  supposed,  by 
some  anatomists,  to  be  as  distinct  from  each  other  as  the 
glass  of  a  watch  is  from  the  case  into  which  it  is  affixed. 
Next  within  this  coat  is  that  called  the  chorokles.,  on  account 
of  its  being  furnished  with  a  great  number  of  vessels.  It 
serves,  as  it  were,  for  a  lining  to  the  other,  and  is  joined  with 
that  part  of  the  eye  termed  the  iris.  The  iris  is  an  opaque 
membrane  like  the  choroides,  but  of  difTerent  colours  in  difTerent 
eyes,  as  gray,  black,  or  hazel.  It  is  composed  of  two  sets  of 
muscular  fibres,  the  one  of  a  circular  form,  which  contracts  the 
hole  in  the  middle,  called  the  pupil.)  when  the  light  is  too 
strong  for  the  eye ;  and  the  other  of  radial  fibres,  tending 
every  where  from  the  circumference  of  the  iris  towards  the 
middle  of  the  pupil ;  which  fibres,  by  their  contractions, 
dilate  and  enlarge  the  pupil,  when  the  light  is  weak,  in  order 

8* 


90  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

to  let  in  more  of  its  rays.  The  third  coat  is  called  the  retina^ 
upon  which  are  painted  the  images  of  all  visible  objects,  by 
the  rays  of  light  which  flow  from  them.  It  spreads  Hke  net- 
work all  over  the  inside  of  the  choroides,  and  is  nothing  more 
than  a  fine  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  by  which  nerve  the 
impressions  of  visible  objects  are  conveyed  to  the  brain. 

The  inside  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  within  these  tunics  or 
coats,  is  filled  with  three  humours,  called  the  aqueous,  the 
crystalline,  and  the  vitreous.  The  aqueous  humour  lies  at 
the  fore  part  of  the' eye,  and  occupies  all  the  space  between 
the  crystalline  and  the  prominent  cornea.  It  lias  the  same 
specific  gravity  and  refractive  power  as  water,  and  seems 
chiefly  of  use  to  prevent  the  crystalline  from  being  easily 
bruised  by  rubbing,  or  by  a  blow — and  perhaps  it  serves  for 
the  crystalline  humour  to  move  forward  in  while  we  view 
near  objects ;  and  backward,  for  remoter  objects ;  without 
which,  or  some  other  mechanism  effecting  the  same  purpose, 
we  could  not,  according  to  the  law  of  optics,  perceive  objects 
distinctly  when  placed  at  different  distances.  •  Behind  the 
aqueous  lies  the  crystalline  humour,  which  is  shaped  like  a 
double  convex  glass,  and  is  a  little  more  convex  on  the  back 
than  on  the  fore  part.  This  humour  is  transparent  like 
crystal,  is  nearly  of  the  consistence  of  hard  jelly,  and 
converges  the  rays  which  pass  through  it  from  visible 
objects,  to  its  focus  at  the  bottom  or  back  part  of  the 
eye.  The  vitreous  humour  lies  behind  the  crystalline, 
and  fills  up  the  greater  part  of  the  orb  of  the  eye,  giving 
it  a  globular  shape.  It  is  nearly  of  the  consistence  of 
the  white  of  an  egg^  and  very  transparent;  its  fore  part  is 
concave,  for  the  crystalline  humour  to  lodge  in,  and  its  back 
part  being  convex,  the  retina  is  spread  over  it.  It  serves  as  a 
medium  to  keep  the  crystalline  humour  and  the  retina  at  a 
due  distance.  From  w^hat  has  been  now  stated,  it  is  obvious, 
that  the  images  of  external  objects  are  depicted  on  the  retina, 
in  an  inverted  position,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  images 
formed  by  a  common  convex  lens ;  but  how  the  mind,  in  this 
case,  perceives  objects  erect,  is  a  question,  about  which  the 
learned  have  been  divided  in  their  opinions.* 

The  ball  of  the  eye,  as  now  described,  is  situated  in  a  bony 
cavity,  called  its  orbit,  composed  by  the  junction  of  seven 
different  bones,  hollowed  out  at  their  edges.     This  cavity  is, 

*  An  idea  of  the  relative  positions  of  the  coats  and  hnmoitrs  described 
above,  may  be  obtained  by  a  simple  inspection  of  the  plate,  Fig.  6. — Fig. 
5  represents  a  front  view  oi  \\ie  human  eye,  as  it  appears  in  its  natural 
state,  and  exhibits  the  relative  positions  of  the  cornea,  iris,  dJid  pupil. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  EYE.  91 

in  all  the  vacant  spaces,  filled  with  a  loose  fat,  which  serves 
as  a  proper  medium  for  the  eye  to  rest  in,  and  as  a  socket  in 
which  it  may  move.  It  is  sheltered  by  the  eyebrows,  which 
are  provided  with  hair,  to  prevent  the  descending  sweat  of 
the  forehead  from  running  down  into  it.  As  a  still  further  pro- 
tection to  this  delicate  organ  it  is  furnished  with  the  eyelid, 
which,  like  a  curtain,  is  drawn  over  it  with  inconceivable 
swiftness,  for  its  security  on  the  approach  of  danger.  It  also 
serves  to  wipe  from  it  superfluous  moisture,  and  to  cover  it 
during  sleep.  In  the  upper  part  of  its  orbit  it  is  furnished 
with  a  gland,  to  supply  it  with  water  sufficient  to  wash  oflf 
dust,  and  to  keep  its  outer  surface  moist,  without  which  the 
cornea  would  be  less  transparent,  and  the  rays  of  light  would 
be  disturbed  in  their  passage ;  and  the  superfluous  water  is 
conveyed  to  the  nose  through  a  perforation  in  the  bone. 

For  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  eye  to  move  in  its  sockets, 
six  muscles  are  provided.  These  are  admirably  contrived  to 
move  it  in  every  direction,  upwards  or  downwards,  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left,  or  in  whatever  direction  the  occasion  may 
require ;  and  thus  we  are  spared  the  trouble  of  turning  our 
heads  continually  towards  the  objects  we  wish  to  inspect.  If 
we  want  to  look  upward,  one  of  these  muscles  lifts  up  the 
orb  of  the  eye  ;  if  we  would  cast  our  eyes  down  to  the  ground, 
another  muscle  pulls  them  down.  A  third  muscle  moves  the 
globe  outwards  towards  the  temples,  and  a  fourth  draws  it  to- 
wards the  nose.  A  fifth,  which  slides  within  a  cartilaginous  ring, 
like  a  cord  over  a  pully,  and  is  fastened  to  the  globe  of  the  eye  in 
two  points,  makes  it  roll  about  at  pleasure.  A  sixth  lies  under 
the  eye,  and  is  designed  to  temper  and  restrain  within  proper 
bounds  the  action  of  the  rest,  to  keep  it  steadily  fixed  on  the 
object  it  beholds,  and  to  prevent  those  frightful  contortions 
which  otherwise  might  take  place.*"  By  these,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  mechanical  contrivances,  all  acting  in  harmo- 
nious combination,  the  eye,  as  a  natural  telescope  and  micro- 
scope, is  made  to  advance,  to  recede,  to  move  to  the  right, 
and  to  the  left,  and  in  every  other  direction ;  and  to  view  near 
and  distant  objects  with  equal  distinctness  ;  so  that  a  single 
eye,  by  the  variety  of  positions  it  may  assume,  performs  the 
office  of  a  thousand.! 

The  utility  of  these  several  movements,  and  the  pain  and 

*  A  more  particular  description  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye,  illustrated  by 
two  engravings,  will  be  found  in  the  author's  volume  entitled,  '  The  Im- 
provement of  Society  by  the  Diffusion  of  Knowledge.'  pp.247,  248. 

t  Flies  and  other  insects,  whose  eyes  are  immovable,  have  several 
thousands  of  distinct  globes  in  each  eye.     See  note,  p.  81. 


92  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

inconvenience  which  would  be  sufTered  were  any  of  them 
wanting,  can  scarcely  be  conceived  by  any  one  whose  eyes 
have  always  remained  in  a  sound  state.  We  are  so  much  ac- 
customed to  the  regular  exercise  of  our  visual  organs,  that 
we  seldom  reflect  on  the  numerous  delicate  springs  which 
must  be  set  in  action,  before  the  functions  of  vision  can  with 
ease  be  performed.  But  were  any  one  of  the  muscular  organs, 
now  described,  to  fail  in  its  functions,  we  should  soon  expe- 
rience so  many  inconveniences,  as  would  throw  a  gloom  on 
all  the  other  comforts  of  life;  and  convince  us  how  much  we 
are  indebted,  every  moment,  to  the  provident  care  and  good- 
ness of  our  beneficent  Creator,  for  thousands  of  enjoyments 
which  we  seldom  think  of,  and  for  which  we  are  never  suffi- 
ciently grateful.  "  With  much  compassion,  as  well  as  asto- 
nishment, at  the  goodness  of  our  loving  Creator,"  says  Dr. 
Nieuwentyt,  "  have  I  considered  the  sad  state  of  a  certain 
gentleman,  who,  as  to  the  rest,  was  in  pretty  good  health,  but 
only  wanted  the  use  of  those  two  little  muscles  that  serve  to 
lift  up  the  eyelid,  and  so  had  almost  lost  the  use  of  his  sight 
— being  forced,  as  long  as  this  defect  lasted,  to  shove  up  his 
eyelids  every  moment  with  his  own  hands."* 

How  admirable,  then,  is  the  formation  of  the  eye,  and  how 
grateful  ought  w^e  to  feel  at  the  consideration,  that  we  are 
permitted  to  enjoy  all  the  transporting  pleasures  of  vision, 
without  the  least  perplexity  or  effort  on  our  part!  If  the  loss 
of  action  in  a  single  muscle  produces  so  many  distressing 
sensations  and  efforts,  what  would  be  the  consequence  if  all 
the  muscles  of  the  eye  were  wanting  or  deranged  ?  And  is  it 
man  that  governs  these  nice  and  intricate  movements, — or  is 
it  the  eye  itself,  as  a  self-directing  machine,  that  thus  turns 
round,  seasonably  and  significantly,  towards  every  visible 
object.''  Man  knows  neither  the  whole  structure  of  the  or- 
gans of  vision,  nor  the  functions  they  ought  to  perform. 
The  eye  is  only  an  unconscious  machine  in  the  hands  of  a 
superior  intelligence,  as  a  w^atch  or  a  steam  engine  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  mechanic.  It  is  God  alone  who  constantly  per- 
forms its  movements,  according  to  certain  laws,  which  he  has 
submitted  to  our  inclinations  and  desires;  '''•for  in  him  we 
live  and  move.''''  We  are  desirous  to  see  certain  objects 
around  us  :  this  is  all  the  share  we  have  in  the  operations  of 
our  eyes;  and  without  perplexing  our  understrnding,  without 
the  least  care  or  management  in  regard  to  any  of  the  fimctions, 
we  can,  in  a  few  moments,  take  a  survey  of  the  beauties  and 

*  Nieuwentyt's  Religious  Philosopher,  Vol.  I.  p.  232. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE   EYE.  93 

sublimities  of  an  extensive  landscape,  and  of  the  glories  of  the 
vault  of  heaven.  Thus  the  Divine  Being  operates,  not  only 
in  this,  but  in  a  thousand  different  ways,  in  the  various  senses 
and  contrivances  which  belong  to  our  animal  system;  and 
yet  thoughtless  and  ungrateful  man  often  inquires,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  doubt  and  hesitation,  "  Where  is  God  my  Maker  ?'' 
He  is  in  us  and  around  us,  directing  every  movement  in  our 
animal  frame  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  surrouncUng  ele- 
ments, and  to  minister  to  our  enjoyment ;  and  it  is  only  when 
his  exquisite  operations  are  deranged  by  external  violence,  or 
by  vicious  or  imprudent  habits,  that  we  feel  inconvenience 
or  pain. 

Such  are  only  a  few  general  outlines  of  the  structure  of  the 
eye;  for  no  notice  has  been  taken  of  the  numerous  minute 
veins,  arteries,  nerves,  lymphatics,  glands,  and  many  other 
particulars  which  are  connected  with  this  organ.  But  all  this 
delicate  and  complicated  apparatus  in  the  structure  of  the  eye, 
would  have  been  of  no  use  whatever  for  the  purpose  of  vision, 
had  not  a  distinct  substance  been  created  to  act  upon  it,  ex- 
actly adapted  to  its  nature  and  functions.  In  order  that  the 
eye  might  serve  as  the  medium  of  our  perceptions  of  visible 
objects,  light  was  formed,  and  made  to  travel  from  its  source 
at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  thousand  miles  in  a 
second  of  time.  This  prodigious  velocity  of  light  is,  doubt- 
less, essential  to  the  nature  of  vision ;  since  it  actually  exists, 
and  since  we  find  that  it  radiates  with  the  same  swiftness  from 
the  most  distant  visible  star,  as  from  the  sun  which  enligiitens 
our  system.  To  abate  the  force  of  this  amazing  velocity,  its 
particles  have  been  formed  almost  infinitely  small — a  circum- 
stance which  alone  prevents  this  delightful  visitant  from  be- 
coming the  most  tremendous  and  destructive  element  in  nature. 
Dr.  Nieuwentyt  has  computed,  that,  in  one  second  of  time, 
there  flows  418,660,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 
000,000,000,000*  particles  of  light  out  of  a  burning  candle, 
which  number  contains  at  least,  6,337,242,000,000  times  the 
number  of  grains  of  sand  in  the  whole  earth,  supposing  every 
cubic  inch  of  the  earth  to  contain  a  million  of  grains.  It  has 
been  justly  remarked,  by  Mr.  Ferguson,  and  other  authors, 
that  ''  if  the  particles  of  light  were  so  large,  that  a  million  of 
them  were  equal  in  bulk  to  an  ordinary  grain  of  sand,  we 
durst  no  more  open  our  eyes  to  the  light,  than  suffer  sand  to 
be  shot  point  blank  against  them  from  the  mouth  of  a  can- 

*  That  is,  four  hundred  and  eighteen  septillions,  six  hundred  and  sixty 
sextillions. — See  Appendix,  Note  III. 


94  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOrHER. 

non.'''  It  may  also  be  remarked,  that  the  property  which  all 
bodies  possess,  of  refleriing  light,  is  essential  to  the  purpose 
of  vision,  without  which  the  splendid  and  variegated  scene  of 
nature  would  be  changed  into  a  dreadful  gloom  ;  and  -were 
the  rays  of  light  of  one  uniform  colour,  and  not  compounded 
of  various  hues,  one  object  could  not  be  distinguished  from 
another,  and  the  beautiful  aspect  of  our  globe  would  instantly 
disappear. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  eye  is  adapted  to  light,  and  light  to 
the  eye ;  and  in  this  admirable  adaptation  the  wisdom  of  the 
Creator  is  strikingly  displayed.  For  light  has  no  etlect  upon 
the  ear,  or  upon  any  other  organ  of  sensation,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  perception  of  visible  objects  :  as,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  undulations  of  the  air  have  no  effect  upon  the  eye,  so  as 
to  produce  the  sensation  of  sound.  The  eye  did  not  produce 
the  light,  nor  did  the  light  form  the  eye ;  they  are  perfectly 
distinct  from  each  other,  yet  so  nicely  adapted  in  every  par- 
ticular, that  had  any  one  quality  or  circumstance  been  wanting 
in  either,  the  functions  of  vision  could  not  have  been  perform- 
ed in  tjie  manner  in  which  they  now  operate  ;  which  strikingly 
demonstrates,  that  one  and  the  same  intelligent  Being,  pos- 
sessed of  a  wisdom  beyond  our  comprehension,  formed  the 
curious  structure  of  the  eye,  and  endued  the  rays  of  light 
with  those  properties  of  colour,  motion,  and  minuteness, 
which  are  calculated,  through  the  medium  of  this  organ,  to 
produce,  in  sentient  beings,  the  ideas  of  visible  objects.  And, 
surely,  he  never  intended  that  such  exquisite  skill  and  con- 
trivance should  be  altogether  overlooked  by  rational  beings, 
for  whose  pleasure  and  enjoyment  all  this  benevolent  care  is 
exercised. 

MANiXER   IN  WHICH  VISION  IS   PERFORMED. 

Let  us  now  attend  a  little  to  the  manner  in  which  vision  is 
performed,  by  the  medium  of  light  acting  on .  the  organs  of 
sight,  if  we  take  a  common  convex  glass — a  reading-glass 
for  example — and  hold  it  at  some  distance  from  a  candle  or  a 
window-sash,  placing  a  piece  of  white  paper  behind  the  glass, 
at  the  distance  of  its  focus,  the  image  of  the  candle  or  sash 
will  be  painted  on  the  paper,  in  an  inverted  position.  This 
experiment  may  be  performed,  with  a  better  effect,  by  darken- 
ing a  room,  and  placing  the  convex  glass  in  a  hole  cut  out  of 
the  window-shutter,  when  the  rays  of  light  flowing  from  the 
objects  without,  and  passing  through  the  glass,  will  form  a 
picture  of  the  objects  opposite  the  window,  on  the  white  paper, 


WONDERS  OF    VISION. 


95 


adorned  with  the  most  beautiful  colours.  In  a  manner  similar 
to  this  are  the  images  of  external  objects  depicted  on  the  back 
part  of  the  inner  coat  or  membrane  of  the  eye.  The  rays  of 
light,  proceeding  in  all  directions  from  surrounding  objects, 
and  falling  on  the  eye,  are  transmitted  through  the  pupil ;  and 
being  refracted  by  the  different  humours,  (particularly  by  the 
crystalUiie  humour,  which  acts  the  part  of  a  convex  lens,) 
thev  converge  to  a  focus  on  the  retina.,  where  the  images  of 
visible  objects  are  painted  in  an  inverted  position  ;  and,  by 
means  of  the  optic  nerve,  these  images  are  conveyed  to  the 
mind. 

The  following  figure  will  perhaps  more  distinctly  illustrate 
this  point. 

Fig.  8. 


Let  ahc  a?  ?/ represent  the  globe  of  the  eye,  and  a  b  c  an  object 
at  a  certain  distance  from  it.  Now,  it  is  well  known  that  every 
point  of  a  visible  object  sends  out  rays  of  light  in  all  directions; 
and  therefore,  a  certain  portion  of  the  rays  which  flow  from  the 
object,  ABC,  will  fall  upon  the  cornea^  between  x  and  ?/,  and, 
passing  through  the  aqueous  humour,  m  ?i,  and  the  crystalline 
humour,  o  p^  and  the  vitreous  humour,  D  E,  will  be  converged 
to  a  focus  on  the  retina,  and  paint  a  distinct  picture,  a  h  c^  of 
the  object  a  b  c,  in  an  inverted  position.  The  rays  from  the 
point  A  of  the  object,  after  being  refracted  by  the  different 
humours,  will  be  brought  to  a  point  at  a;  those  fi*om  b,  will 
be  converged  at  b  ;  and  those  from  c,  at  c  ;  and,  of  course, 
the  intermediate  rays  between  a  b,  and  b  c,  will  be  formed 
between  a  &,  and  b  c,  and  the  object  will  become  visible  by 
means  of  its  image  or  representation  being  painted  on  the  re- 
tina, in  all  the  colours  and  proportions  w^hich  belong  to  it.  If 
we  take  a  bullock's  eye,  and  cut  off  the  three  coats  from  the 
back  part,  and  put  a  piece  of  thin  white  paper  over  that  part, 
and  hold  the  eye  towards  the  window,  or  any  bright  object, 
we  shall  see  the  image  of  the  object  depicted  upon  the  paper, 
and  in  an  inverted  position,  as  stated  above. 


96  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

In  Older  that  we  may  more  distinctly  perceive  the  wonders 
of  vision,  and  tlie  numerous  circumstances  on  which  it  de- 
pends, let  us  suppose  ourselves  placed  on  an  eminence,  which 
commands  a  view  of  a  variegated  and  extensive  landscape. 
Let  us  suppose  ourselves  stationed  on  Arlliur's  seat,  or  on  the 
top  of  Salisbury  crags,  in  the  vicinity  of  Edinburgh.  Turn- 
ing our  face  to  the  north-west,  the  city,  with  its  castle,  spires, 
and  stately  edifices,  presents  itself  to  our  view.  Beyond  it, 
on  the  north  and  west,  a  beautiful  country,  adorned  with 
villas,  plantations,  and  fertile  fields,  stretches  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  till  the  view  is  bounded  by  the  castle  of  Stirling, 
at  the  distance  of  more  than  thirty  miles.  On  the  right  hand, 
we  behold  the  port  of  Leith,  the  shipping  in  the  roads,  the 
coast  of  Fife,  the  isles  of  Inchkeith  and  of  May,  and  the 
frith  of  Forth  gradually  losing  itself  in  the  German  ocean. 
If  we  suppose  the  length  of  this  landscape  to  be  forty  miles, 
and  its  breadth  twenty-five,  it  will,  of  course,  comprehend  an 
area  of  a  thousand  square  miles. 

The  first  circumstance  which  strikes  the  mind  is  the  im- 
mense multitude  of  rays  of  reflected  light,  which  flow  in  all 
directions,  from  the  myriads  of  objects  which  compose  the 
surrounding  scene.  In  order  to  form  a  rude  idea  of  this  infi- 
nity of  radiations,  I  fix  my  attention  on  a  single  object.  I 
direct  my  eye  to  Nelson's  monument,  on  the  Gallon  hill. 
From  the  parapet  at  the  top,  a  thousand  diffJsrent  points  send 
forth  a  thousand  diflerent  cones  of  rays,  which,  entering  my 
eye,  render  the  diflerent  parts  of  it  distinctly  visible,  besides 
myriads  of  rays  from  the  same  points,  which  flow  in  every 
other  direction  through  the  open  spaces  of  the  atmosphere 
which  surround  them.  How  many  thousands  of  millions, 
then,  of  different  radiations  must  be  issuing  forth  every  mo- 
ment from  the  whole  mass  of  the  monument !  And  if  one  object 
pours  forth  such  a  flood  of  rays,  how  immense  must  be  the 
number  of  radiations  which  are  issuing  from  all  the  objects 
which  compose  this  extensive  landscape!  Myriads  of  rays, 
from  myriads  of  objects,  must  be  crossing  each  other  in  an 
infinity  of  directions,  so  that  the  mind  is  confounded  at  the 
apparent  confusion  which  seems  to  exist  in  this  immensity  of 
radiations;  yet  every  ray  passes  forward  in  the  crowd,  in  the 
most  perfect  order,  and,  without  being  blended  or  confused 
with  any  otlier  ray,  produces  its  specific  effect  on  every  eye 
that  is  open  to  receive  it.  But  this  is  not  all :  these  millions 
of  rays,  which  flow  from  the  minutest  points  of  the  surround- 
ing scene,  before  they  can  produce  the  sensation  of  vision, 
and  form  a  picture  of  the  landscape  on  the  retina,  must  be 


WONDERS  OF  VISION.  97 

compressed  into  a  space  little  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  before  they  can  enter  the  pupil  of  the  eye ;  yet 
they  all  pass  through  this  small  aperture  without  the  least 
confusion,  and  paint  the  images  of  their  respective  objects  in 
exactly  the  same  order  in  which  these  objects  are  arranged. 
Another  circumstance  demands  attention.  The  rays  which 
proceed  from  the  objects  before  me,  are  not  all  directed  to  the 
spot  where  I  stand,  but  are  diffused  throughout  every  point 
of  the  surrounding  space,  ready  to  produce  the  same  effect, 
wherever  sentient  beings  are  present  to  receive  them.  Were 
the  whole  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh  placed  on  the  sloping  de- 
clivity of  Arthur's  seat,  and  along  the  top  of  Salisbury  crags, 
and  were  millions  of  other  spectators  suspended  in  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  similar  sensations  would  be  produced, 
and  a  scene  similar  to  that  which  I  now  behold  would  be  de- 
picted in  every  eye.  Amidst  the  infinity  of  cones  of  light, 
crossing  each  other  in  an  infinity  of  directions,  no  confusion 
would  ensue,  but  every  spectator,  whose  eyes  were  in  a  sound 
state,  would  obtain  a  correct  view  of  the  scene  before  him ; 
and  hence  it  happens  that  whenever  1  shift  my  position  to  the 
right  hand  or  to  the  left,  other  streams  of  light  enter  my  eye, 
and  produce  the  same  effect. 

Let  me  now  attend  to  another  circumstance,  no  less  admi- 
rable than  the  preceding,  and  that  is,  the  distinct  impression 
which  I  have  of  the  shape,  colour,  and  motion,  of  the  multi- 
plicity of  objects  1  am  now  contemplating,  and  the  small  space 
within  which  their  images  are  depicted  at  the  bottom  of  my 
eye.  Could  a  painter,  after  a  long  series  of  ingenious  efforts, 
delineate  the  extensive  landscape  now  before  me,  on  a  piece 
of  paper  not  exceeding  the  size  of  a  silver  sixpence,  so  that 
everv  object  might  be  as  distinctly  seen,  in  its  proper  shape 
and  colour,  as  it  now  appears  when  I  survey  the  scene  around 
me,  he  w^ould  be  incomparably  superior  to  all  the  masters  of 
his  art  that  ever  went  before  him.  This  effect,  which  far 
transcends  the  utmost  efforts  of  human  genius,  is  accomplished 
in  a  moment,  in  millions  of  instances,  by  the  hand  of  nature, 
or,  in  other  words,  by  "  the  finger  of  God."  All  the  objects 
I  am  now  surveying,  comprehending  an  extent  of  a  thousand 
square  miles,  are  accurately  delineated  in  the  bottom  of  my 
eye,  on  a  space  less  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  How  de- 
licate, then,  must  be  the  strokes  of  that  divine  pencil  which 
has  formed  such  a  picture !  I  turn  my  eyes  to  the  castle  of 
Edinburgh,  which  appears  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  ob- 
jects in  my  field  of  view.  Supposing  that  portion  of  it  which 
strikes   mv  eve  to  be  500  feet  long,  and  90  in  height,  I  find, 

9 


98  CHRISTIAN  THILOSOPHER. 

by  calculation,  that  it  occupies  only  the  six-hundred-thoti- 
sandlh  part  of  the  whole  landscape,  and,  consequently,  fills 
in  mv  eye  no  more  than  the  twelve  hundred-thousandth  part 
of  an  incli.  I  next  direct  my  eye  towards  the  frith  of  Forth, 
and  perceive  a  steamboat  sailing  between  Queensferry  and 
Newhaven.  I  distinctly  trace  its  motion  for  the  space  of  40 
minutes,  at  the  end  of  which  it  reaches  the  chainpier  at  New- 
haven,  having  passed  over  a  space  of  five  miles  in  length, 
which  is  but  the  eighth  part  of  the  lineal  extent  of  the  land- 
scape in  that  direction  ;  and,  consequently,  occupies,  in  the 
picture  formed  on  my  retina,  a  lineal  space  of  only  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  in  extent.  And,  if  the  boat  be  reckoned 
about  88  feet  in  length,  its  image  is  only  the  three-hundredth 
part  of  this  extent;  and,  of  course,  fills  a  space  in  the  eye  of 
onlv  the  four-thousand-eighth-hundredth  part  of  a  Ihieal  inch. 
Yet,  my  perception  of  the  motion  of  the  vessel  could  be  pro- 
duced by  only  a  corresponding  motion  of  its  image  in  my  eye  ; 
that  is,  by  the  gradual  motion  of  a  point  48-^0^  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  over  a  space  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
How  inconceivably  fine  and  accurate,  then,  must  be  the  im- 
pression of  those  strokes  which  the  rays  of  light,  from  visible 
objects,  produce  on  the  retina  of  the  eye !  The  mind  is  lost 
in  wonder  when  it  attempts  to  trace  so  exquisite  and  admira- 
ble an  effect. 

I  take  a  reflecting  telescope,  and  through  it  view  some  of 
the  distant  parts  of  the  landscape.  My  wonder  is  still 
increased  when  I  consider  the  new  directions  into  which  the 
rays  of  light  are  bent — the  crossings  and  recrossings,  the 
refractions  and  reflections,  that  take  place  between  the  mirrors 
and  the  lenses  of  the  instrument,  and  the  successive  images 
that  are  formed — so  that,  instead  of  a  scene  of  confusion, 
which,  previous  to  experience,  might  have  been  expected  from 
the  numerous  additional  bendings  and  intersections  of  the 
rays — I  now  perceive  hundreds  of  objects,  with  the  most  per- 
fect distinctness,  which  were  before  invisible.  Rays  of  light 
from  distant  and  minute  objects,  which  a  moment  before  made 
no  sensible  impression  on  my  eye,  being  collected  and 
variously  modified  by  the  telescope,  now  paint  a  vivid  repre- 
sentation of  their  objects,  in  their  true  figures,  colours,  and 
positions. 

From  a  consideration  of  the  innumerable  modifications  of 
the  rays  of  light,  and  of  the  immense  variety  of  effects  they 
produce  in  every  region  of  the  earth — I  an)  led  to  investigate 
what  proportion  of  the  solar  light  falls  upon  our  glohe^  in 
order  to  produce   so   diversified  a    scene  of   sublimity  and 


THE  WONDERS   OF  VISION.  99 

beauty.  Supposing  the  sun's  rays  to  be  chiefly  confined,  in 
their  efiects,  within  the  limits  of  the  planetary  system,  since 
they  diverge  in  every  direction,  they  must  fill  a  cubical  space 
3,600,000,000  miles  in  diameter;  which  consequently  will 
contain  about  24,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  of 
cubical  miles,  so  that  an  eye,  placed  in  any  point  of  this  vast 
space,  would  receive  a  distinct  impression  from  the  solar  rays. 
The  solidity  of  the  earth  is  about  264,000,000,000  cubical 
miles,  and  therefore,  it  receives  only  the  g^^^- -^^  -L-  ---  -^^-^^ 
part  of  the  light  which  fills  the  sphere  of  the  solar  system. 
So  that  the  light  which  cheers  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world, 
and  unveils  such  a  variety  of  beautiful  and  magnificent  ob- 
jects, is  nothing  more  than  a  single  stream  of  celestial  radiance 
out  of  ninety  thousand  billions  of  similar  streams,  which  the 
great  source  of  light  is  every  moment  diffusing  throughout 
surrounding  worlds.  But  the  solar  rays  are  not  confined  within 
the  bounds  of  the  planetary  system ;  their  influence  extends 
in  every  direction,  as  far  as  the  nearest  stars,  filling  a  cubical 
space  at  least  40,000,000,000,000  miles  in  diameter,  and  which 
contains  33,500,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.000,000, 
000,000,  or  thirty-three  thousand  five  hundred  sextillions  of 
cubical  miles.  And  were  we  to  institute  comparisons  and  cal- 
culations with  respect  to  the  possible  variety  of  efl^ects  they 
might  produce  throughout  this  immense  region,  whole  pages 
might  be  filled  with  figures,  ciphers,  and  computations.  We 
might  compute  how  many  globes  similar  to  the  earth,  or  any 
of  the  larger  planets,  might  be  contained  within  this  vast 
space,  allowing  several  hundreds  of  cubical  miles  of  empty 
space  around  each  globe — how  many  myriads  of  refractions 
and  reflections  the  rays  of  light  would  suffer,  in  regard  to  the 
peculiar  objects  connected  with  every  one  of  these  globes — 
how  many  eyes  of  sentient  beings  might  be  affected  by  the 
diversities  of  colour,  shape,  and  motion  which  would  thus  be 
produced — and  what  a  variety  of  shades  of  light  and  colour, 
and  what  a  diversity  of  scenery  would  be  produced,  according 
to  the  distances  of  the  respective  globes  from  the  central  lumi- 
nary. After  what  we  have  just  now  stated,  however,  we  may 
rest  satisfied  with  joining  in  the  pious  exclamation  of  one 
who  had  just  finished  a  devout  survey  of  the  structure  of  the 
human  frame  ;  ""Marvellous  are  thy  works,  and  that  my  soul 
knoweth  right  well.  How  precious  are  thy  thoughts  unto 
me,  O  God!"  (or,  as  the  words  might  be  rendered,)  "How 
precious  are  thy  wonderful  contrivances  concerning  me,  O 
God !  how  great  is  the  sum  of  them  I  If  I  should  count 
them,  they  are  more  in  number  than  the  sand."    In  what  direc- 


100  CIIIMSTIAN  rHlLO,^Ol'nEK- 

tioii  soever  I  turn  mine  eyes ;  whatever  portion  of  thy  works 
I  investigate,  ••'  /  am  still  loith  thee.''''*  Thine  infinity  and 
unsearchable  wisdom  are  impressed  on  every  object,  so  that  I 
feel  myself  every  moment  encompassed  by  thine  immensity, 
and  am  irresistibly  led  to  wonder  and  adore. 

1  shall  now  conclude  these  reflections  on  vision,  with  two 
or  three  additional  remarks,  }t  is  worthy  of  notice,  in  the 
first  place,  that  the  eye  has  the  power  of  adapting  itself  to 
objects  placed  at  difierent  distances.  By  means  of  some  de- 
licate pieces  of  mechanism,  not  hitherto  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained, it  can  perceive,  with  distinctness,  a  large  object  at  the 
distance  of  six  Jiiiles,  and  the  next  moment  it  can  adjust  itself 
to  the  distinct  perception  of  an  object  at  the  distance  of  six 
inches  ;  so  that  it  acts  the  part  both  of  a  telescope  and  a 
microscope,  and  pan  be  instantaneously  adjusted  to  perform 
either  as  the  one  instrument  or  as  the  other.  This  necessa- 
rily supposes  a  corresponding  alteration  in  the  state  of  the 
organ,  every  time  we  lift  our  eye  from  a  near  to  look  at  a  dis- 
tant object.  Either  the  cornea  is  somewhat  flattened,  or  the 
crystalline  is  pushed  backwards,  or  both  these  changes,  in 
combination  with  others,  may  concur  in  causing  the  rays 
from  distant  objects  to  unite  exactly  on  the  retina,  withoui 
which,  distant  vision  cannot  be  produced.  This  contrivance, 
in  whatever  kind  of  mechanism  it  may  consist,  is  one  which 
art  would  vainly  attempt  to  imitate.  We  can  see  objects  that 
are  near  us  with  a  microscope ;  and  those  that  are  distant  v/ith 
a  telescope ;  but  we  should  in  vain  attempt  to  see  distant 
objects  with  the  former,  or  those  that  are  only  a  ^ew  inches 
fi*om  us  with  the  latter,  without  a  variety  of  changes  being 
made  in  the  apertures  and  positions  of  the  glasses  belonging 
to  the  respective  instruments.  In  this  respect  therefore,  as 
well  as  in  every  other,  the  eye  is  an  optical  instrument,  incom- 
parably superior  to  any  instrument  or  imitation  that  art  can 
produce;  and  were  it  not  for  the  peculiar  property  now 
described,  it  would  be  almost  unfit  for  the  purpose  of  vision, 
notwithstanding  all  the  other  delicate  contrivances  which  en- 
ter into  its  construction.  If  it  were  adjusted  only  for  the  dis- 
tinct perception  of  distant  objects,  every  object  within  the 
limits  of  an  ordinary  apartment  would  appear  a  mass  of  con- 
fusion ;  and  were  it  adjusted  solely  for  viewing  objects  within 
the  limits  of  a  few  feet  or  inches,  the  glories  of  the  heavens, 
and  the  beautiful  landscape  of  the  earth,  would  be  veiled  from 
our  sight,  as  if  they  were  enveloped  in  a  mist. 

*  Psahn  cxxxix,  14.  17,  18. 


THE  WONDERS  OF  VISION.  101 

Another  circumstance,  worthy  of  attention,  is  the  power 
which  the  pupil  of  the  eye  possesses  of  contracting  or  en- 
larging the  aperture  or  iiole  through  which  the  light  is  ad- 
mitted. When  the  light  is  too  weak,  the  pupil  is  enlarged; 
when  it  is  too  strong,  it  is  again  contracted.  Accordingly  we 
find  that,  when  we  enter  a  darksome  apartment,  though,  at 
first,  nothing  can  be  accurately  distinguislied,  yet,  in  the  course 
of  a  minute  or  two,  when  the  pupil  has  had  time  to  dilate,  we 
can  perceive  most  objects  wilh  considerable  distinctness.  And, 
on  the  other  hand,  when  we  pass  from  a  dark  room  to  an 
apartment  lighted  up  with  a  number  of  lustres,  we  feel  uneasy 
at  the  sudden  glare,  till  the  pupil  has  contracted  itself,  and 
excluded  a  portion  of  the  superfluous  rays.  Were  it  not  for 
this  property,  we  should,  for  the  most  part,  either  be  sur- 
rounded with  a  disagreeable  gloom,  or  oppressed  with  an  ex- 
cessive splendour.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  we  are  unable  to 
look  upon  the  sun  without  being  dazzled,  and  are  under  the 
necessity  of  closing  the  eyelids,  or  of  turning  away  the  head, 
when  a  strong  light  suddenly  succeeds  to  darkness. 

Again,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  observe,  how  wisely  the 
Author  of  nature  has  fixed  the  distance  at  which  we  ordinarily 
see  near  objects  most  distinctly.  This  distance  is  generally 
from  five  to  eight  inches  from  the  eye.  But,  had  the  eye  been 
formed  for  distinct  vision,  at  the  distance  of  only  one  inch,  the 
object  would  have  obstructed  the  light,  and  room  would  have 
been  wanting  for  the  performance  of  many  necessary  opera- 
tions, which  require  the  hand  to  intervene  between  the  eye 
and  the  object.  And  had  the  limits  of  distinct  vision  for  near 
objects  been  beyond  two  or  three  feet,  sufficient  light  would 
not  have  been  afforded  for  the  inspection  of  minute  objects, 
and  we  could  neither  have  written  a  letter  nor  have  read  a 
book  wilh  the  same  convenience  and  ease  we  are  now  enabled 
to  do. 

From  the  preceding  descriptions  and  remarks,  it  will  evi- 
dently appear,  with  what  admirable  skill  the  different  parts  of 
the  organs  of  vision  are  constructed,  and  how  nicely  they  are 
adapted  to  the  several  ends  they  were  intended  to  subserve. 
Were  any  one  of  these  parts  deficient,  or  obstructed  in  its 
functions,  vision  would  either  be  impeded,  or  rendered  painful 
and  distressing,  or  completely  destroyed.  If  any  of  the 
humours  of  the  eye  were  wanting — if  they  were  less  trans- 
parent— if  they  were  of  a  different  refractive  power — or  if  they 
were  of  a  greater  or  less  convexity  than  they  now  are,  how- 
ever minute  the  alteration  might  be,  vision  would  inevitably 
be  obstructed,  and  every  object  would  appear  confused  and 

9* 


102  CHIIISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

indistinct.  If  the  retina,  on  which  the  images  of  objects  aie 
painted,  were  flat,  instead  of  being  concave,  while  objects  in 
the  middle  of  tlie  view  appeared  distinct,  every  object  towards 
the  sides  woidd  appear  dim  and  confused.  If  the  cornea  were 
as  opake  as  the  sclerotica,  to  which  it  is  joined,  or  if  the  re- 
tina were  not  connected  with  the  optic  nerve,  no  visible  object 
could  possibly  be  perceived.  If  one  of  the  six  muscles  of  the 
eye  were  wanting,  or  impeded  in  its  functions,  we  could  not 
turn  it  to  the  right ;  if  a  second  were  deficient,  we  could  not 
turn  it  to  the  left ;  if  a  third,  we  could  not  lift  it  upwards ;  if 
a  fourth,  we  could  not  move  it  downwards ;  and  if  it  were 
deprived  of  the  other  two  muscles,  it  would  be  apt  to  roll 
about  in  frightful  contortions.  If  the  eyes  were  placed  in  any 
other  part  of  the  body  than  the  head — if  they  were  much 
more  prominent  than  they  now  are — if  they  were  not  sur- 
rounded by  the  bony  socket  in  which  they  are  lodged — and 
if  they  were  not  frequently  covered  by  the  eyelid — they  would 
be  exposed  to  a  thousand  accidents  from  which  they  are  now 
protected.  If  they  wanted  moisture,  and  if  they  were  not 
frequently  M'iped  by  the  eyelids,  they  would  become  less 
transparent,  and  more  liable  to  be  enflamed  ;  and  if  they  were 
not  sheltered  by  the  eyebrows,  the  sweat  and  moisture  of  the 
forehead  would  frequently  annoy  them.  Were  the  light  which 
acts  upon  them  devoid  of  colour — were  it  not  reflected  from 
objects  in  every  direction — were  its  motion  less  swift,  or  its 
particles  much  larger  than  they  now  are — in  short,  were  any 
one  circumstance  connected  with  the  structure  of  this  organ, 
and  with  the  modification  of  the  rays  of  light,  materially 
different  from  its  present  arrangement,  ^ve  siiould  either  be 
subjected  to  the  hourly  recurrence  of  a  thousand  painful 
sensations,  or  be  altogether  deprived  of  the  entertainments  of 
vision. 

How  admirable  an  organ,  then,  is  the  eye,  and  how  nicely 
adapted  to  unveil  to  our  view  the  glories  of  the  universe! 
Without  the  application  of  any  skill  or  laborious  eflbrts  on 
our  part,  it  turns  in  every  direction,  transports  us  to  every 
surrounding  object,  depicts  the  nicest  shades  and  colours  on 
its  delicate  membranes,  and 


Takes  in,  at  once,  the  landscape  of  the  world 
At  a  small  Inlet,  lolrich  a  grain  might  close, 
And  half  creates  the  wondrous  world  we  see." — Young. 


— How  strikingly  does  it  display,  in  every  part  of  its  structure 
and  adaptations,  the  marks  of  benevolent  design,  and  of  in- 
finite intelligence!     However  common  it  is  to  open  our  eyes, 


WO-VDERS  OF   VISIOX.  103 

and  to  behold,  in  an  instant,  the  beauties  of  an  extensive  land- 
scape, and  however  little  we  may  be  accustomed  to  admire 
this  wonderful  effect — there  is  not  a  doctrine  in  religion,  nor 
a  fact  recorded  in  revelation,  more  mysterious  and  incompre- 
hensible. An  excellent  French  writer  has  well  observed — 
"  The  sight  of  a  tree  and  of  the  sun,  which  God  shows  me, 
is  as  real  and  as  immediate  a  revelation  as  that  which  led 
Moses  towards  the  burning  bush.  The  only  difference  be- 
tween both  these  actions  of  God  on  Moses  and  me  is,  that  the 
first  is  out  of  the  common  order  and  economy;  whereas  the 
other  is  occasioned  by  the  sequel  and  connexion  of  those 
laws  which  God  has  established  for  the  regulation  both  of 
man  and  nature." 

Jf,  then,  the  eye  of  man  (who  is  a  depraved  inhabitant  of  a 
world  lying  partly  in  ruins)  is  an  organ  so  admirably  fitted 
for  extending  our  prospects  of  the  visible  creation — we  may 
reasonably  conclude,  that  organized  beings  of  superior  intelli- 
gence and  moral  purity,  possess  the  sense  of  vision  in  a  much 
greater  degree  of  perfection  than  man  in  his  present  state  of 
degradation — and  that  they  may  be  enabled,  by  their  natural 
organs,  to  penetrate  into  regions  of  the  universe  far  beyond 
what  man,  by  the  aid  of  artificial  helps,  will  ever  be  able  to 
descry.  It  may  not  be  altogether  extravagant,  nor  even  be- 
yond the  reality  of  existing  facts,  to  suppose,  that  there  are 
intelligences  in  the  regions  of  Jupiter  or  Saturn,  whose  visual 
organs  are  in  so  perfect  a  state,  that  they  can  descry  the 
mountains  of  our  moon,  and  the  continents,  islands,  and 
oceans  which  diversify  our  globe,  and  are  able  to  delineate  a 
map  of  its  surface,  to  mark  the  period  of  its  diurnal  rotation, 
and  even  to  distinguish  its  cities,  rivers,  and  volcanoes.  It  is 
quite  evident,  that  it  must  be  equally  easy  to  Divine  wisdom 
and  omnipotence,  to  form  organs  with  powers  of  vision  far 
surpassing  what  I  have  now  supposed,  as  to  form  an  organ  in 
which  the  magnificent  scene  of  heaven  and  earth  is  depicted, 
in  a  moment,  within  the  compass  of  half  an  inch.  There  are 
animals  whose  range  of  vision  is  circumscribed  within  tlie 
limits  of  few  feet  or  inches ;  and,  had  we  never  perceived 
objects  through  an  organ  in  the  same  state  of  perfection  as 
that  with  which  we  are  furnished,  we  could  have  formed  as 
little  conception  of  the  sublimity  and  extent  of  our  present 
range  of  sight,  as  we  can  now  do  of  those  powers  of  vision 
which  would  enable  us  to  descry  the  inhabitants  of  distant 
worlds.  The  invention  of  the  telescope  shows,  that  the 
penetrating  power  of  the  eye  may  be  indefinitely  increased; 
aJi:l,  since  the  art  of  man  can  extend  the  limits  of  natural 


104  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

vision,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that,  in  the  hand  of  Omnipo- 
tence, a  slight  modification  of  the  human  eye  might  enable  it, 
with  the  utmost  distinctness,  to  penetrate  into  regions  to 
which  the  imagination  can  set  no  bounds.  And  therefore  it 
is  not  unreasonable  to  believe,  that,  in  the  future  world,  this 
will  be  one  property,  among  others,  of  the  resurrection-body,, 
that  it  will  be  furnished  with  organs  of  vision  far  superior  to 
the  present,  in  order  to  qualify  its  intelligent  inhabitant  for 
taking  an  ample  survey  of  the  "  riches  and  glory"  of  the  em- 
pire of  God. 

I  have  dwelt  somewhat  particularly  on  the  functions  of  the 
eye,  in  order  to  show,  that  it  is  only  when  we  take  a  minute 
inspection  of  the  operations  of  the  Creator,  that  his  infinite 
wisdom  and  intelligence  are  most  distinctly  perceived.  The 
greater  part  of  Christians  will  readily  admit  that  the  wisdom 
of  God  is  manifested  in  every  object;  but  few  of  them  take 
the  trouble  to  inquire,  m  what  particular  contrivances  and 
od apt af ions  this  wisdom  is  displayed ;  and  therefore  rest  satis- 
fied with  vague  and  general  views,  which  seldom  produce  any 
deep  impression  on  the  mind.  "  The  works  of  the  Lord," 
which  are  "great"  and  admirable,  ''-must  be  sought  out  by  all 
those  who  have  pleasure  therein ;"  and  the  more  minutely 
they  are  inspected,  the  more  exquisite  and  admirable  do  all 
his  arrangements  appear. 

Were  we  to  enter  into  an  investigation  of  the  visual  organs 
of  the  lower  animals^  and  to  consider  the  numerous  varieties 
which  occur  in  their  structure,  position,  and  movements,  and 
how  nicely  the  peculiar  organization  of  the  eye  is  adapted  to 
the  general  structure  of  the  animal,  and  to  its  various  necessi- 
ties and  modes  of  existence — the  operation  of  the  same 
inscrutable  wisdom  and  intelligence  would  meet  our  eye  at 
every  step.  Birds,,  for  example,  which  procure  their  food  by 
their  beak,  have  the  power  of  seeing  distinctly  at  a  very  small 
distance ;  and,  as  their  rapid  motions  through  the  air  renders 
it  necessary  that  they  should  descry  objects  at  a  considerable 
distance,  they  have  two  peculiar  mechanical  contrivances, 
connected  with  their  organs  of  vision,  for  producing  both  these 
effects.  One  of  these  contrivances  consists  in  a  flexible  rim, 
formed  of  bone,  which  surrounds  the  broadest  part  of  the  eye  ; 
and,  by  occasionally  pressing  upon  its  orb,  shortens  its  focal 
distance,  and  thus  enables  it  to  inspect  very  near  objects.  The 
other  consists  of  a  peculiar  muscle,  which  draws  back,  as 
occasion  requires,  the  crystalline  humour,  by  which  means  it 
can  take  a  distinct  view  of  a  distant  landscape,  and  can  pass 
from  the  sight  of  a  very  near  to  the  sight  of  a  distant  object, 


VISUAL  ORGAiVS  OF  A.MMALS.  105 

with  rapidity  and  ease.  In  fishes^  which  live  in  a  medium  of 
a  different  refractive  power  from  that  of  air,  the  crystalline 
humour  has  a  greater  degree  of  convexity,  and  more  nearly 
approaches  to  a  ghibular  form  than  that  of  ani:nals — -which 
conformation  is  essentially  requisite  to  a  distinctness  of  vision 
in  the  watery  element.  A  fish,  of  conrse,  cannot  see  distinctly 
in  air,  nor  a  quadruped  under  water;  and  every  person  who 
has  dived  into  the  water  with  his  eyes  open,  knows  that 
though  he  may  perceive  the  general  formiS  and  colours  of' 
objects,  his  vision  is  obscure  and  indistinct.  In  hares  and 
rabbits  the  eyes  are  very  convex  and  prominent,  so  that  they 
can  see  nearly  quite  round  them ;  whereas  in  dogs,  which 
pursue  these  animals,  the  visual  organs  are  placed  jnore  in  the 
front  of  the  head,  to  look  rather  before  than  behind  them. 
Some  animals,  as  cats  and  oiols,  which  pursue  their  prey  in 
the  dark,  have  the  pupil  of  their  eye  so  formed  as  to  be  capable 
of  great  expansion,  so  that  a  few  rays  of  light  may  make  a 
lively  impression  on  their  retina ;  while  the  eagle,  which  is 
able  to  look  directly  at  the  sun,  has  its  pupil  capable  of  being 
contracted  almost  to  a  point.  Insects,  such  as  the  beetle,  the 
Jiy,  and  the  butterfly,  whose  eyes  are  incapable  of  motion, 
have  several  thousands  of  small  transparent  globes,  set  in  a 
convex  hemisphere,  every  one  of  which  is  capable  of  forming 
an  image  of  an  object;  so  that  they  are  enabled  to  view  t'le 
objects  around  them  without  moving  their  heads.  But  it 
would  be  beyond  the  limits  of  my  plan  to  prosecute  this  sub- 
ject any  further:  enough  has  already  been  stated,  to  show 
that  the  eyes  of  men  and  of  other  animals  are  masterpieces 
of  art,  which  far  transcend  the  human  understanding;  and 
that  they  demonstrate  the  consummate  wisdom  of  Him  who 
planned  and  constructed  the  organical  functions  of  the  various 
tribes  of  animated  existence. 

I  shall  conclude  this  branch  of  my  subject,  by  presenting 
an  instance  or  two  of  the  inechanlsm  of  the  bones,  and  the 
movements  it  is  fitted  to  produce. 

The  bones  of  the  human  frame  are  articulated,  or  connected 
together  in  different  ways,  but  most  frequently  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  : — Either,  first,  a  bone  wdth  a  round  head  is  arti- 
culated with  a  cavity,  and  plays  in  it  as  a  ball  in  the  socket ; 
or,  second,  they  are  connected  together  by  a  hinge-like  articu- 
lation, which  enables  a  bone  to  move  up  or  down,  backwards 
or  forwards,  like  a  door  upon  its  hinges.  An  idea  of  these 
two  motions,  and  the  purposes  they  serve,  may  be  obtained, 
by  considering  the  construction  of  the  pedestal  of  a  telescope, 


106  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

and  the  joints  on  which  it  moves.  One  of  the  joints  is  of 
tlie  nature  of  a  hinge,  bj-  which  a  vertical  motion,  or  a  motion 
upwards  and  downwards  is  produced.  A  horizontal  motion, 
or  a  motion  towards  the  right  hand  or  the  left,  is  produced  hy 
a  pivot  moving  in  a  socket;  so  that,  by  these  two  motions,  the 
telescope  can  be  made  to  point  in  any  direction.  Such  is  the 
nature  of  the  articulations  of  the  bones,  and  the  movements 
they  produce ;  and  whenever  one  or  other  of  these  motions, 
or  both  of  them  combined,  are  requisite  for  the  comfort  and 
convenience  of  the  individual,  such  a  power  of  motion  is 
uniformly  found  to  exist.  If  the  movement  of  a  joint  in 
every  direction  would,  in  any  particular  case,  be  found  incon- 
venient, the  hinge-like  articulation  is  fixed  upon:  but  if  a 
motion  in  every  direction  is  required  for  the  convenient  use 
of  particular  members,  and  for  the  variety  of  evolutions,  which 
a  sentient  being  may  have  occasion  to  make,  the  ball  and 
socket  articukuion  is  combined  with  the  former. 

For  example,  let  any  person  for  a  moment  consider  the 
joints  of  his  fingers,  and  compare  them  with  the  joint  at  his 
wrist.)  where  the  hand  is  connected  with  the  fore-arm.  if  he 
hold  the  back  of  his  hand  upwards,  he  will  find  that  he  can 
ir.ove  his  fingers  upwards  or  downwards;  but  he  cannot  turn 
tliem  to  the  right  hand  or  to  the  left,  so  as  to  make  them  de- 
6-(:ibe  a  circular  motion.  He  will  also  find  that  his  ivrist  is 
capable  of  a  similar  movement,  so  that  the  hand  may  be  bent 
in  a  vertical  direction.  But,  in  addition  to  this  motion,  it  is 
also  capable  of  being  turned  in  a  horizontal  direction,  or  from 
one  side  to  another.  In  the  former  case,  we  have  an  example 
of  the  hinge  articulation  ;  in  the  latter,  it  is  combined  with  an 
articulation  which  produces  nearly  the  same  eflect  as  a  pivot 
moving  in  a  socket.  Now^,  had  the  joints  of  the  fingers  been 
capable  of  the  same  motions  as  the  wrist,  the  hand  would 
have  lost  its  firmness,  and  been  incapable  of  performing  a 
variety  of  mechanical  operations  which  require  objects  to  be 
held  with  a  steady  grasp.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  wrist 
had  been  confined  to  a  vertical  motion,  the  hand  would  have 
been  incapable  of  one  out  of  a  hundred  varied  movements 
M  hich  it  can  now  perform  with  the  greatest  ease.*     In  this 

*  The  horizontal  motion  of  the  wrist,  or  that  motion  by  which  the  palm 
of  the  hand  is  alicrnately  turned  up  and  down,  is  produced  chiefly  by  the 
motions  of  ihe  two  bones  of  lore-arm,  called  the  radius  and  the  u}?w,  one 
of  which  is  articulated  to  the  Jmmcrus,  or  bone  connected  wiih  the 
shoulder.  In  the  following  representation,  (fig.  9,)  C  is  the  humerus  or 
elioulder  bone  ;  B  is  the  elbow  where  the  two  bones  of  the  fore-arm  are 
comiected  with  the  humerus  ;  D  is  the  radius,  which  joins  the  wrist,  on 
the  side  v\  here  the  thumb  is,  and  E  the  uhia,  which  joins  the  wrist  on 


MECHANISM  OP  THE   BOxNES.  107 

case,  we  could  not  have  bored  a  hole  with  a  gimlet,  cut  down 
corn  with  a  sickle,  dig-ged  the  earth  with  a  spade,  sewed 
clothes  with  a  needle,  tossed  up  a  ball,  or  turned  up  the  palm 

the  side  where  the  litlle  finger  is.  In  fig.  10,  G  is  the  radius;  fig.  11, 
H  is  the  uhia.  The  uhia  has  a  hooked  process,  marked  e,  which  catches 
round  the  lower  end  ol'  the  humerus,  forming  with  it  a  hinge  joint.  This 
bone  projects  beyond  the  head  of  the  humerus,  forming,  when  the  arm  is 
bent,  the  point  of  the  elbow.  '^I'he  radius  has  a  small  round  head  B,  oa 
which  it  turns,  without  any  motion  of  tlie  humerus — bound  to  the  uhia  by 
ligaments — and  as  the  bones  of  the  wrist  are  attached  to  the  lower  end 
of  this  bone  alone,  and  not  to  the  ulna, — when  the  radius  revolves  the 
whole  hand  turns  with  it.  This  alternate  rolhng  is  what  anatomists  call 
■pronation  and  supination.  Flexion  and  extension  of  the  arm  are  performed 
by  means  of  the  ulna,  which  carries  the  radius  along  with  it  in  all  its  move- 
ments. While  the  larger  part  of  the  ulna  is  above,  the  larger  part  of  the 
radius  is  below,  so  that  while  the  former  presents  a  large  surface  for  arti- 
culation at  the  elbow,  the  latter  does  the  same  at  the  wrist,  and  this  in- 
verse arrangement  likewise  contributes  to  the  uniform  diameter  of  the  fore- 
arm. While  the  fore-arm  is  thus  attached  to  the  humerus,  the  radius  is 
attached  to  the  wrist,  so  that  when  we  turn  the  palm  of  the  hand  the  radius 
rolls  on  the  ulna  by  the  help  of  a  groove  or  hollow  near  each  end  of  the 
bone,  carrying  the  hand  with  it.  So  admirable  indeed  is  this  contrivance, 
that  both  motions  may  be  performed  at  the  same  time  ;  for  while  we  are 
bending  the  arm,  we  may  also  be  rotating  or  turning  it  upon  its  axis. 
To  facilitate  these  motions,  a  tubercle  of  the  radius  plays  into  a  socket 
of  the  ulna,  near  the  elbow, — while  near  the  wrist,  the  radius  finds  the 
socket,  and  the  ulna  the  tubercle. 


Now,  had  both  bones  been  joined  to  the  upper  arm  at  the  elbow,  or 
both  to  the  hand  at  the  wrist,  the  motions  now  stated  could  not  have  been 
accomplished.  The  first  bone  was  to  be  at  liberty  at  one  end,  and  the 
second  at  the  other,  by  which  means  the  two  motions  may  be  performed 
together.  The  bone  which  carries  the  fore  arm  may  be  swinging  upon 
its  hinge  at  the  elbow,  at  the  very  time  that  the  other  bone  which  carries 
the  hand  may  be  turning  round  it  in  its  grooves.  Had  there  been  only  a 
single  bone  in  the  fore-arm,  with  a  ball  and  socket  at  the  elbow,  it  might, 
in  a  certain  degree,  iiave  accomplished  the  purpose  intended ;  but  in  this 
case,  the  turnmgofthe  hand  and  arm  would  have  been  effected  by  a  com- 
paratively slow  and  laborious  motion.  Such  is  the  wonderful  care  and  ac- 
curacy with  which  our  all-wise  and  benevolent  Creator  has  contrived  and 
adjtisted  every  minute  part  and  motion  connected  with  our  animal  frame 
to  subserve  our  convenience  and  pleasure.  No  one  who  is  acquainted 
with  the  minute  and  exquisite  mechanism  of  the  human  body,  will  dare  to 


108  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

of  the  liand,  for  any  of  the  useful  purposes  for  which  the  mo- 
tion was  ordained.  In  short,  without  the  rotatory  motion  of 
the  wrist,  the  greater  part  of  the  operations  connected  with 
gardening,  agricuhure,  cookery,  washing,  spinning,  weaving, 
painting,  carving,  engraving,  building,  and  other  mechanical 
arts,  could  not  be  performed  ;  and  such  of  them  as  could  be 
effected,  would  be  accomplished  only  with  the  greatest  incon- 
venience and  labour.  Any  person  may  convince  himself  of 
this,  by  holding  his  hand  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  pre- 
venting his  wrist-joint  from  turning  round,  and  then  by  trying 
what  operations  he  can  easily  perform  without  the  rotatory 
motion  ;  and  he  will  soon  perceive  with  what  exquisite  skill 
the  numerous  movements  our  animal  frames  have  been  con- 
trived by  the  great  Author  of  our  existence.  In  each  hand 
there  are  twenty-seven  bones,  all  of  which  are  essential  to  the 
different  motions  we  wish  to  perform.  Every  finger  is  com- 
posed of  three  bones,  connected  together  by  articulations, 
muscles,  and  ligaments.  K^  instead  of  three,  each  finger  were 
composed  of  only  one  bone,  it  would  be  quite  impossible  for 
us  to  grasp  a  single  object. 

The  same  admirable  contrivance  may  be  perceived  in  the 
movements  of  which  the  head  is  susceptible.  It  was  requisite, 
in  order  to  our  convenience  and  comfort,  that  we  should  be 
enabled  to  move  our  head  backwards  or  forwards — to  look 
up  towards  the  heavens,  or  downwards  to  the  ground.  It  was 
also  expedient,  that  it  should  have  a  power  of  turning  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left,  so  as  to  take  in  a  considerable  portion  of 

mil  in  quosiion  ilie  skill,  the  design,  and  the  forethought  of  the  great 
Artificer  of  that  wonderful  frame  ;  and  he  must  possess  a  cold  and  unfeeling 
heart,  who  can  behold  with  apathy,  and  without  reverence  and  gratitude, 
the  multitudinous  mass  of  splendid  and  exquisite  contrivances  of  which  he 
every  moment  feels  the  pleasure  and  advantage. 

In  the  human  hand,  in  particular,  we  perceive  an  instrument  far  supe- 
rior to  that  of  any  similar  part  connected  with  the  structure  of  the  lower 
animals.  In  this  hand  we  perceive  the  sensibihties  to  changes  of  tempe- 
rature, to  touch,  and  to  motion,  combined  with  a  facility  in  the  joints  of 
unfolding  and  moving  in  every  possible  degree  and  direction,  and  in  a 
manner  inimitable  by  any  artificer  of  joints  and  levers.  In  all  the  move- 
ments of  human  beings,  it  is  the  hand  that  guides  them  in  their  industry 
and  mental  acquisitions.  By  its  assistance  they  have  drained  unwhole- 
some marshes — iransformed  deserts  into  fruitful  fields — turned  the  course 
of  rivers — banked  out  the  headlong  sea — cleared  the  thickest  forests,  and 
caused  cilies,  temples,  and  palaces  to  arise  where  the  wild  beasts  of  the 
forests  formerly  roamed  at  large.  In  short,  by  this  instrument  man  has 
been  enabled  to  prosecute  his  course  along  pathless  oceans  and  through 
the  region  of  the  clouds — to  measure  time  and  space — to  investigate  the 
wonders  of  the  e:irth  and  of  the  heavens,  and  to  promote  his  progress  to- 
wards intellectual  perfection, — and,  wiihout  it,  scarcely  any  science  or 
department  of  human  knowledge  could  be  acquired  or  cultivated — sup- 
posing the  whole  human  race  to  have  been  destitute  of  this  instrument. 


MECHANISM  OF  THE  BONES.  109 

a  circle,  without  being  under  the  necessity  of  turning  round 
the  wliole  body.  Accordingly  we  find,  that  both  these  mo- 
tions are  provided  for,  in  the  manner  in  which  the  head  is 
connected  with  the  verlehrce.  The  head  rests  upon  the  upper- 
most of  these  bones,  to  which  it  is  connected  by  a  hinge  joint, 
similar  to  those  on  the  lingers,  which  allows  it  to  move  back- 
ward and  forward;  and,  by  means  of  a  round,  longish  pro- 
cess, or  projection,  which  moves  in  a  socket,  it  is  enabled  to 
move  horizontally,  as  upon  an  axis.  Had  the  first  motion 
been  wanting,  we  could  not  have  looked  up  to  the  zenith, 
without  lying  flat  on  our  back ;  nor  could  we  have  looked  to 
the  ground,  without  placing  our  bodies  in  a  prone  positii'in  ; 
and,  in  such  a  case,  v.e  could  never  have  seen  our  own  feet, 
unless  when  they  were  bent  considerably  forward.  Had  the 
second  motion  been  wanting,  we  could  have  looked  to 
nothing,  except  the  objects  directly  before  us,  without  the 
trouble  of  turning  round  the  whole  body,  either  to  the  right 
or  to  the  left.  But,  in  the  construction  of  our  corporeal 
system,  every  thing  is  so  arranged  and  adapted  to  another,  as 
at  once  to  contribute  to  ease  and  facility  of  motion,  in  all  the 
varied  operations  and  movements  we  have  occasion  to  per- 
form;  which  circumstance  forcibly  demonstrates  both  the 
benevolent  intentions,  and  the  admirable  wisdom  of  Him 
'"  whose  hands  have  made  and  fashioned  us,"  and  who 
"  breathed  into  our  nostrils  the  breath  of  life." 

Tlie  above  are  only  two  or  three  out  of  a  hundred  of  simi- 
lar instances,  which  might  be  produced,  to  show  the  benevo- 
lent care  \vhich  has  been  exercised  in  arranging  and  articulating 
the  system  of  bones,  of  which  the  propwork  of  the  human 
frame  is  composed.  Were  w^e  to  enter  into  an  investigation 
of  the  actions  and  uses  of  the  various  muscles,  the  wonderful 
system  of  veins  and  arteries,  the  action  of  the  heart,  stoma(?h, 
and  bowels  ;  the  process  of  respiration,  and  insensible  perspir- 
ation, and  the  system  of  nerves,  glands,  lymphatics,  and 
lacteals — a  thousand  instances  of  Divine  wisdom  and  bene- 
ficence would  crowd  upon  our  view,  which  could  not  fail  to 
excite  the  pious  and  contemplative  mind  to  join  in  the  devo- 
tions of  the  "  sweet  singer  of  Israel :" — "  1  will  praise  thee  ; 
for  I  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made  :  marvellous  are  thy 
works,  and  that  my  soul  knoweth  right  well."  But  as  I  in- 
tended to  present  only  a  {ew  speci?nens  of  the  wisdom  of  God, 
as  displayed  in  the  construction  of  the  material  world,  I  shall 
conclude  this  department  of  my  subject  with  a  single  re- 
flection.* * 

*  Those  who  wish  to  prosecute  this  subject,  particularly  that  part  of  it 

10 


110  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

How  foolish  and  ungrateful  is  it  for  rational  beings  to  over- 
look the  wise  and  benevolent  arrangements  of  the  Creator,  in 
the  material  universe  !     How  many  thousands  of  human  be- 
ings pass  their  existence  without  once  reflecting  on  the  nume- 
rous evidences  of  Divine  wisdom  and  beneficence  which  appear 
around  them,  or  feeling  the  least  spark  of  gratitude  for  their 
preservation  and  comforts,  to  that  Being  "  in  whose  hand  their 
breath  is,  and  whose  are  all  their  ways  !"     Yea,  how  many  are 
there  who  consider  themselves  as  standing  high  in  the  ranks 
of  the  Christian  profession,  who  affect  to  look  down,  with  a 
certain  degree  of  contempt,  on  the  study  of  the  material  works 
of  God,  as  if  it  were  too  gross  a  subject  for  their  spiritual  at- 
tainments !     They  profess  to  trace  the  wisdom  of  God  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  feel  gratitude  for  his  pardoning  mercy  ;  but 
they  seldom  feel  that  gratitude  which  they  ought  to  do  for 
those  admirable  arrangements  in  their  own  bodies,  and  in  the 
elements  around  them,  by  which  their  lives  are  preserved,  and 
their  happiness  promoted  ;    and  even  seem  to  insinuate,  that 
they  have  little  or  nothing  to  do  with  the  contrivances  of  the 
God  of  nature.     They  leave  it  to  the  genius  of  infidel  philoso- 
phers to  trace  the  articulation  of  the  bones,  the  branchings  of 
the  veins  and  arteries,  the  properties  of  light,  and  the  compo- 
sition of  the  atmosphere,  while  they  profess  to  feast  their  minds 
on  more  sublime  and  spiritual   entertainments.     But,  surely, 
such  astonishing  displays  of  the  wisdom  and  benignity  of  the 
Most  High,  as  creation  exhibits,  were  never  intended  to  be 
treated  by  his  intelligent  offspring  with  apathy  or  indifference; 
and  to  do  so  must  indicate  a  certain  degree  of  base  ingratitude 
towards  Him  whose  incessant  energy  sustains  the  whole  as- 
semblage of  sentient  and  intelligent  beings,  and  who  displays 
himself,  in  their  construction  and  preservation,  to  be  "  won- 
d(  ifiil  in  counsel,  and  excellent  in  working."     Shall  we  ima- 
gine, that  because  God  stands  in  the  gracious  relation  of  our 
Redeemer,  he  has  ceased  to  stand  in  the  relation  of  our  Creator 
and   Preserver  ?     Or  shall  we  consider  those  subjects  as  un- 
worthy our  attention,  which  are  the  theme  of  the  praises  of 
tlie   heavenly   host  ?*     Can  we    suppose    that  the  Almighty 
displayed  his  infinite  wisdom  in  the  curious  organization  of  the 
human  eye,  that  man — the  only  being  in  this  world  who  is 

which  relates  to  the  contrivances  of  Divine  wisdom  which  appear  in  the 
animal  system,  will  find  ample  gratification  in  Nieuwentyt's  '  Religious 
Philosopher,'  Vol.  i.,  Bell's  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  '  The  Hand,'  and 
Dr.  Paley's  'Natural  Theology.'  A  variety  of  useful  remarks  on  this 
subject  will  also  be  found  in  Ray's  '  Wisdom  of  God  in  the  Creation,' 
Derham's  '  Physico-Theology,'  and  Bonnet's  Contemplation  of  Nature.' 
*  Revt'lation,  iv.  11. 


MORAL  REFLECTIONS.  Ill 

endowed  with  faculties  capable  of  appreciating  its  structure, 
atu!  for  whose  use  and  entertainment  it  was  intended — should 
overlook  such  a  wonderful  piece  of  Divine  workmanship,  and 
feel  no  gratitude  for  the  bestowment  of  so  admirable  a  gift  ? 
Shall  we  extol  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  a  clock  or  watch,  in 
a  chess-player,  or  a  steam-engine,  and  shall  we  feel  no  senti- 
ment of  admiration  at  the  view  of  millions  of  instances  of 
Divine  mechanism,  which  infinitely  transcend  the  powers  of 
the  human  understanding  ?  To  act  in  this  manner,  as  too 
many  are  disposed  to  do,  is  unworthy  of  man,  both  as  a  Chris- 
tian and  as  an  intelligent  agent.  Such  was  not  the  conduct  of 
the  inspired  writers ;  their  spirituality  of  views  did  not  lead 
them  to  neglect  the  contemplation  of  any  of  the  works  of  God ; 
"  1  will  meditate  on  all  thy  works,""  says  the  Psalmist,  "and 
talk  of  all  thy  doings  ;  I  will  utter  abundantly  the  memory  of 
thy  great  goodness,  and  speak  of  all  thy  wondrous  works." 
Accordingly  we  find,  that  the  wonders  of  the  human  frame, 
the  economy  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  tribes,  the  scenery 
of  the  "  dry  land,"  and  of  the  "  mighty  deep,"  and  the  glories 
of  the  heavens  were  the  frequent  subjects  of  their  devout  con- 
templation. They  considered  them  in  relation  to  the  unceas- 
ing agency  of  God,  by  whom  they  were  formed  and  arranged, 
and  as  declaring  his  wisdom,  goodness,  and  omnipotence ; 
and  with  this  view  ought  all  the  scenes  of  the  visible  creation 
to  be  investigated  by  his  intelligent  creatures. 

We  have  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  owing,  in  part,  to  want 
of  attention  to  the  Divine  wisdom  and  beneficence,  as  exhibited 
in  the  construction  of  the  visible  world,  that  many  professed 
Christians  entertain  so  vague  and  confused  ideas  respecting 
the  goodness  of  the  Deity,  as  displayed  in  the  economy  of 
redemption.  The  terms,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  beneficence, 
iw  their  mouths,  become  words  almost  without  meaning,  to 
which  no  precise  or  definite  ideas  are  attached  ;  because  they 
have  never  considered  the  instances  and  the  evidences  of  these 
attributes,  as  displayed  in  the  material  creation.  7\nd  if  our 
minds  have  not  been  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  wisdom 
and  beneficence  of  God,  in  those  objects  which  are  presented 
to  the  external  senses,  we  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  lumi- 
nous and  distinct  ideas  of  those  spiritual  objects  and  arrange- 
ments which  are  removed  beyond  the  sphere  of  our  corporeal 
organs.  For  all  our  ideas  in  relation  to  religion  and  its  ob- 
jects are  piimarily  derived  from  the  intimations  we  receive  of 
external  objects,  through  the  medium  of  our  senses  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, the  more  clearly  we  perceive  the  agency  of  God  in 
his  visible  operations,  the  more  shall  we  be  qualified  to  per- 


112  CHRISTIAN  rniLOSOPHER- 

ceive  tlie  wisdom  and  harmony  of  his  dispensations,  as  recorded 
in  the  volume  of  inspiration. 

We  live  in  a  world,  all  the  arrangements  of  wliich  are  the 
efiects  of  Infinite  Wisdom.  We  are  surrounded  with  wonders 
on  every  hand ;  and  therefore  we  cease  to  admire,  or  to  fix 
our  attention  on  any  one  of  the  wonders  daily  performed  by 
God.  We  have  never  been  accustomed  to  contemplate,  or  to 
inhabit  a  world  where  benevolence  and  wisdom  are  not  dis- 
played ;  and  therefore  we  are  apt  to  imagine,  that  the  circum- 
stances of  our  terrestrial  existence  could  not  have  been  much 
otherwise  than  they  actually  are.  We  behold  the  sun  in  the 
morning,  ascending  from  the  east — a  thousand  shining  globes 
are  seen  in  the  canopy  of  the  sky  when  he  has  disappeared 
in  the  west.  We  open  our  eyelids,  and  the  myriads  of  objects 
which  compose  an  extensive  landscape  are,  in  a  moment, 
painted  on  our  retina, — we  wish  to  move  our  bodies,  and,  in 
an  instant,  the  joints  and  muscles  of  our  hands  and  feet  per- 
forin their  several  functions.  We  spread  out  our  wet  clothes 
to  dry,  and  in  a  few  hours  the  moisture  is  evaporated.  We 
behold  the  fields  drenched  with  rain,  and  in  a  few  days  it  dis- 
appears, and  is  dispersed  through  the  surrounding  atmosphere, 
to  be  again  embodied  into  clouds.  These  are  all  common 
operations,  and  therefore  thoughtless  and  ungrateful  man  sel- 
dom considers  the  obligations  he  is  under  to  the  Author  of  his 
existence,  for  the  numerous  enjoyments  which  flow  from  these 
wise  arrangements.  But  were  the  globe  we  inhabit,  and  all 
its  appendages,  to  remain  in  their  present  state — and  were  only 
the  principle  of  evaporaiion  and  the  refractive  and  reflective 
properties  of  the  air  to  be  destroyed — we  should  soon  feel, 
by  the  universal  gloom  which  would  ensue,  and  by  a  thou- 
sand other  inconveniences  we  would  suffer,  what  a  miserable 
world  was  allotted  for  our  abode.  We  should  most  sensibly 
perceive  the  wisdom  and  goodness  we  had  formerly  overlooked, 
and  would  most  ardently  implore  the  restoration  of  those  ar- 
rangements for  which  we  were  never  sufficiently  grateful. 
'And  why  should  we  not  now — while  we  enjoy  so  many  com- 
forts flowing  from  the  plans  of  Infinite  Wisdom — have  our 
attention  directed  to  the  benevolent  contrivances  within  us  and 
around  us,  in  order  that  grateful  emotions  may  be  houily 
arising  in  our  hearts  to  the  Father  of  our  spirits  ?  For  the  es- 
sence of  true  religion  consists  chiefly  in  gratitude  to  the  God 
of  our  life,  and  the  Author  of  our  salvation  ;  and  every  pleas- 
ing sensation  we  feel  from  the  harmonies  and  the  beau  lies  of 
nature  ought  to  inspire  us  with  this  sacred  emotion.  "•  Hearken 
unto  this,  O  man  !    stand  still,  and  consider  the   wonderful 


BENEVOLENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  113 

works  of  God.  Contemplate  the  balancings  of  the  clouds, 
the  wondrous  works  of  Him  who  is  perfect  in  knowledge." 
"  He  hatli  made  the  earth  by  his  power,  he  hath  established 
the  world  by  his  wisdom.  When  he  uttereth  his  voice,  there 
is  a  noise  of  waters  in  the  heavens*,  he  causeth  the  vapours  to 
ascend  from  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  bringeth  the  winds  out 
of  his  treasuries,"  While  it  is  shameful  for  man  to  be  inat- 
tentive to  the  wonders  which  surround  him,  what  can  be  more 
pleasnig  and  congenial  to  a  rational  and  devout  mind  than 
contemplations  on  the  works  of  the  Most  High?  "What  can 
be  more  gratifying,"  says  Sturm,  "  than  to  contemplate,  in  the 
heavens,  in  the  earth,  in  the  water,  in  the  night  and  day,  and, 
indeed,  throughout  all  nature,  the  proofs  which  they  afford  of 
the  wisdom,  and  purity,  and  the  goodness  of  our  great  Creator 
and  Preserver !  What  can  be  more  delightful  than  to  recog- 
nize, in  the  whole  creation,  in  all  the  natural  world,  in  every- 
thing we  see,  traces  of  the  ever-working  providence  and  tender 
mercy  of  the  great  Father  of  all !" 

SECTION    IV. 

ON  THE  GOODNESS  OR  BENEVOLENCE  OF  THE  DEITY. 

The  benevolence  of  God  is  that  perfection  of  his  nature, 
by  which  he  communicates  happiness  to  the  various  ranks  of 
sensitive  and  intelligent  existence. 

The  system  of  nature,  in  all  its  parts,  exhibits  an  unbounded 
display  of  this  attribute  of  the  Divine  Mind,  both  in  relation 
to  man,  and  in  relation  to  the  subordinate  tribes  of  animated 
existence.  In  relation  to  man — the  magnificence  and  glory 
of  the  heavens — the  variegated  colouring  which  is  spread  over 
the  scene  of  nature — the  beautiful  flowers,  shrubs,  and  trees, 
with  which  the  earth  is  adorned,  which  not  only  delight  the 
eye,  but  perfume  the  air  with  their  delicious  odours — the  va- 
rious kinds  of  agreeable  sounds  that  charm  the  ear — the  music 
of  the  feathered  songsters,  which  fill  the  groves  with  their 
melody — the  thousands  of  pleasant  images  which  delight  the 
eye,  in  the  natural  embellishments  of  creation — the  agreeable 
feelings  produced  by  the  contact  of  almost  every  thhig  we 
have  occasion  to  touch — the  pleasure  attached  to  eating,  drink- 
ing, muscular  motion,  and  activity — the  luxuriant  profusion 
and  rich  variety  of  aliments  which  the  earth  affords — and  the 
interchanges  of  thought  and  affection — all  proclaim  the  bene- 
volence of  our  Almighty  Maker,  and  show,  that  the  commu- 
nication of  happiness  is  one  grand  object  of  all  his  arrange- 
ments.    For  these  circumstances  are  not  essentially  requisite 

10* 


114  CHRISTIAN  rHILOSOPIIER. 

to  our  existence.  We  might  have  lived,  and  breathed,  and 
walked,  thou^'h  every  thing  we  touched  had  produced  pain; 
thoiic-h  every  tiling  we  ate  and  drank  had  been  bitter;  though 
every  movement  of  our  hands  and  feet  had  been  accompanied 
with  uneasiness  and  fatigue;  though  every  sound  had  been  as 
harsh  as  the  saw  of  the  carpenter;  though  no  birds  had  war- 
bled in  the  groves ;  though  no  flowers  had  decked  the  fields, 
or  filled  the  air  with  their  perfumes ;  though  one  unvaried 
scene  of  dull  uniformity  had  prevailed,  and  beauty  and  sub- 
limity had  been  swept  from  the  face  of  nature;  though  the 
earth  had  been  covered  with  a  mantle  of  black,  and  no  radiant 
orbs  had  appeared  in  our  nocturnal  sky.  But  what  a  misera- 
ble world  should  we  then  have  inhabited,  compared  with  that 
Avhich  we  now  possess!  Life  would  have  passed  away  without 
enjoyment,  and  pain  would  have  overbalanced  the  pleasures  of 
existence.  Whereas,  in  the  existing  constitution  of  things,  all 
the  objects  around  us,  and  every  sense  of  which  we  are  pos- 
sessed, when  preserved  in  its  natural  vigour,  have  a  direct 
tendency  to  produce  pleasing  sensations,  and  to  contribute  to 
our  enjoyment:  and  it  is  chiefly  when  we  indulge  in  foolish 
and  depraved  passions,  and  commit  immoral  actions,  that  the 
benevolent  intentions  of  the  Deity  are  frustrated,  and  pain  and 
misery  produced. 

Had  the  Creator  of  the  world  been  a  malevolent  being,  and 
possessed  of  infinite  power  and  intelligence,  every  arrange- 
ment of  nature  would  have  been  almost  the  reverse  of  what 
we  now  find  it.  The  production  of  evil^  and  of  pain  in  sen- 
sitive beings,  would  have  been  the  aim  of  the  contriver  in  all 
his  operations  and  allotments.  All  design  in  the  frame  of  the 
universe,  and  all  tiiat  wisdom  and  intelligence  which  we  now 
admire  in  the  adaptations  of  the  parts  and  functions  of  ani- 
mals to  their  necessities  and  to  the  constitution  of  nature 
around  them — we  should  have  dreaded  as  contrivances  to  pro- 
duce painful  sensations,  and  to  render  them  acute  and  perma- 
nent. Instead  of  ease,  and  enjoyment,  and  delight  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  our  functions  and  faculties — the  ordinary  state  of  the 
bnver  animals  and  of  human  beings  would  have  been  a  state 
of  trouble,  disease,  dejection,  and  anguish.  Every  breath  of 
air  might  have  cut  us  like  the  point  of  a  dagger,  or  produced 
a  pain  like  that  of  swallowing  aquafortis  or  sulphuric  acid.* 

*  Sulphuric  acid  consists  of  75  pnrts  oxycren,  and  25  parts  nitrogen, 
which  form  the  constituent  parts  of  the  air  we  breathe,  only  in  a  different 
proportion.  \Vere  this  proportion  materially  altered,  we  should  feel  the 
most  excruciating  pain  in  attempting  to  breathe  it  in  some  of  its  coinbina- 
lions. 


BENEVOLENCE   OF  THE  DEITY.  115 

Every  touch  might  have  felt  like  the  sting  of  a  nettle,  or  like 
the  rubbing  of  salt  upon  a  festering  wound.  Every  taste 
Mould  have  been  bitter  as  gall  and  wormwood,  and  every 
sound  harsh  and  discordant,  or  as  a  hideous  scream.  All  our 
senses,  instead  of  being  the  sources  of  pleasure,  as  they  now 
are,  would  have  been  the  instruments  of  pain  and  torture. 
The  lower  animals,  instead  of  ministering  to  our  delight  and 
necessities,  would  have  been  formed  so  as  to  torment,  to  ha- 
rass, and  annoy  us.  Tlie  cow  and  the  goat  would  have  af- 
forded us  no  milk,  nor  the  bee  its  honey,  nor  would  the  birds 
of  the  air  have  charmed  us  with  their  musjc.  Dismal  and 
haggard  objects  would  have  been  strewed  over  the  whole  face 
of  creation,  and  all  vvould  have  appeared  a  melancholy  gloom, 
Aviihout  beauty  or  variety.  The  fields  would  have  wanted 
tiieir  delightful  verdure,  their  diversified  aspect,  and  the  beau- 
tiful powers  wdlh  which  they  are  now  adorned.  The  fire 
might  have  scorched  without  warming  us,  and  water,  instead 
of  refreshing  us,  might  have  produced  intolerable  pain.  The 
light  might  have  been  without  colour;  it  might  have  dazzled 
instead  of  cheering  us,  and  prevented  distant  objects  from  be- 
ing perceived.  Our  eye  balls  might  have  wanted  the  muscles 
which  now  enable  them  to  move  with  ease  in  every  direction, 
and  every  ray  of  light  might  have  affected  them  wnlh  pain. 
The  ground  might  have  been  formed  so  soft  and  yielding,  that 
at  every  step  we  should  have  sunk  like  persons  walking  in  a 
quagmire,  hi  short,  our  imaginations,  in  such  a  case,  would 
have  presented  to  us  little  else  than  frightful  spectres  and  ob- 
jects of  terror  and  alarm, — and  our  minds  have  been  filled 
with  dismal  forebodings  and  dreadful  expectations.  But,  every 
arrangement  in  the  system  of  nature,  as  it  is  now  constituted, 
is  directly  the  reverse  of  what  we  have  now  supposed.  And 
this  consideration  demonstrates,  that  the  great  Creator  of  the 
universe  is  the  God  of  love,  whose  mercy  and  benevolence 
are  displayed  towards  every  rank  of  sensitive  and  intelligent 
existence,  and  these  attributes,  we  are  assured,  will  never 
cease  in  their  operations,  so  Jong  as  the  universe  endures. 

If  we  consider,  further,  that  the  inexhaustible  bounty  of 
the  Creator,  and  the  numerous  pleasures  we  enjoy,  are  be- 
stowed upon  a  guilty  race  of  men,  the  benevolence  of  the 
Df  ity  will  appear  in  a  still  more  striking  point  of  view.  Man 
has  dared  to  rebel  against  his  Maker;  he  is  a  depraved  and 
ungrateful  creature.  The  great  majority  of  our  race  have 
banished  God  from  their  thoughts,  trampled  upon  his  law^s, 
neglected  to  contemplate  his  works,  refused  to  pay  him  that 
tribute  of  reverence  and  adoration   which  his  perfections  de- 


116  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

maiul,  liave  been  iingratefiil  for  his  favors,  have  blasphemed 
his  name,  and  iiave  transferred  to  "  four-footed  beasts  and 
creeping  tiling's,"  that  homage  which  is  due  to  him  alone.  It 
has  been  the  chief  part  of  their  employment,  in  all  ages,  to 
counteract  the  effects  of  his  beneficence,  by  inflicting  injustice, 
oppression,  and  torture  upon  each  other;  by  maiming  the  hu- 
man frame,  burning  cities  and  villages,  turning  fruitful  fields 
into  a  wilderness,  and,  by  every  other  act  of  violence,  carry- 
ing death  and  destruction  through  the  world.  And  if  wnter^ 
air^  and  the  light  of  heaven,  had  been  placed  within  the  limits 
of  their  control,  it  is  more  than  probable,  that  whole  nations 
would  have  been  occasionally  deprived  of  these  elements,  so 
essential  to  human  existence.  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  pre- 
valence of  such  depraved  dispositions,  the  streams  of  Divine 
benevolence  towards  our  apostate  race  have  never  yet  been  in- 
terrupted. The  earth  has  never  stopped  in  its  career,  and 
thrown  nature  into  a  scene  of  confusion;  the  light- of  heaven 
has  never  ceased  to  illume  the  world  ;  the  springs  of  water 
have  never  been  dried  up,  nor  has  the  fertile  soil  ceased  to 
enrich  the  plains  with  golden  harvests.  God  "hath  not  left 
himself  without  a  witness"  to  his  beneficence,  in  any  age,  in 
that  he  hath  unceasingly  bestowed  on  the  inhabitants  of  the 
world  "  rain  from  heaven,  and  fruitful  seasons,  filling  their 
hearts  with  food  and  gladness."  This  is  one  of  the  charac- 
ters of  Deity  which  forms  the  most  perfect  contrast  to  the 
selfish  and  revengeful  dispositions  of  man,  which  as  far  tran- 
scends human  benevolence,  as  the  heavens  in  extent  surpass 
the  earth — a  character  calculated  to  excite  our  highest  love 
and  admiration,  and  which  we  are  called  upon,  in  the  sacred 
oracles,  to  imitate  and  revere :  "  Be  ye  merciful,  as  your 
Father  who  is  in  heaven  is  merciful ;  for  he  maketh  his  sun  to 
rise  on  ihe  evil  and  on  the  good,  and  sendeth  rain  on  the  just 
and  on  the  unjust."  "O  that  men  would  praise  the  Lord  for 
his  goodness,  and  for  his  wonderful  works  to  the  children  of 
men  !" 

From  such  considerations  we  learn,  even  from  tjie  system 
of  nature,  that  mercy  is  an  attribute  of  the  Deity;  for  if  mercy 
consists  hi  bestowing  favours  on  those  who  are  unworthy,  or 
who  merit  punishment,  the  greatest  sinners  in  all  ages  have 
shared  in  it,  and  every  individual  of  the  human  race,  now  ex- 
isting, enjoys  a  certain  portion  of  those  comforts  which  flow 
from  the  benevolent  arrangements  which  the  Creator  has 
established;  "He  maketh  the  sun  to  arise  on  ihe  evil  and  on 
the  good."  Though  the  nations  in  ancient  times,  as  well  as 
at  present,  "  walked  in  their  own  ways,"  indulging  in  impiety, 


BENEVOLENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  117 

falsehood,  lewdness,  war,  devastations,  revenge,  abominable 
idt)latries,  and  eveiy  other,  violation  of  his  law,  he  still  sup- 
ported the  functions  of  their  animal  frames,  and  caused  the 
influences  of  tlie  sun,  the  rains,  and  the  dews,  to  descend 
upon  their  fields,  that  they  might  be  refreshed  with  his  bounty, 
and  filled  ''•  with  food  and  gladness."  If  mercy  were  not  aa 
essential  attribute  of  the  Deity,  he  would  have  cut  them 
down  in  the  midst  of  their  first  transgressions,  shattered  to 
pieces  the  globe  on  which  they  dwelt,  and  buried  them  in 
eternal  oblivion.  But  whether  Divine  mercy  will  extend  to 
the  final  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  the  communication  of  eternal 
happiness  to  such  beings,  can  be  learned  only  from  the  dis- 
coveries of  revelation. 

In  relation  to  the  inferior  animals — the  immense  multitude 
of  living  creatures  with  which  the  earth  is  replenished  is  a 
striking  evidence  of  the  vast  profusion  of  Divine  beneficence. 
Blore  than  a  hundred  thousand  species  of  animated  beings  are 
dispersed  through  the  different  regions  of  the  air,  the  water, 
and  the  earth,  besides  myriads  which  are  invisible  to  the  un- 
assisted eye.  To  estimate  the  number  of  individuals  belong- 
ing to  any  one  species  is  beyond  the  power  of  man.  VViiat 
countless  myriads  of  herrings,  for  example,  are  contained  in  a 
single  shoal,  which  is  frequently  more  than  six  miles  long, 
and  three  miles  broad !  To  estimate  the  number  of  indivi- 
duals in  all  the  different  species,  would  therefore  be  as  impos- 
sible as  to  count  the  grains  of  sand  in  the  Arabian  deserts. 
There  is  not  a  single  spot  in  any  region  of  the  globe  but  what 
teems  with  animated  beings.  Yet  all  this  vast  assemblage  of 
sensitive  existence  is  amply  provided  for  by  the  bountiful 
Creator.  "-These  all  wait  upon  him,  and  he  giveth  them  their 
meat  in  due  season."  They  enjoy  not  only  life,  but  also  a 
happy  existence.  The  sportive  motions  and  gesticulations  of 
all  the  animal  tribes — the  birds  skimming  through  the  air, 
warbling  in  the  groves,  and  perching  on  the  trees — the  beasts 
of  the  field  bounding  in  the  forests  and  through  the  lawns — 
the  fishes  sporting  in  the  waters — the  reptiles  wriggling 
in  the  dust — and  the  winged  insects,  by  a  thousand  wanton 
mazes — all  declare  that  they  are  rejoicing  in  their  existence, 
and  in  the  exercise  of  those  powers  with  which  the  Creator 
has  furnished  them.  So  that  wherever  we  turn  our  eyes,  we 
evidently  perceive  that  "  the  earth  is  full  of  the  goodness  of 
the  Lord,"  and  that  "  his  tender  mercies  are  over  all  his 
works.'' 

This  subject  is  boundless;  but  it  would  be  inconsistent 
with  the  limited  plan  of  this  work  to  enter  into  any  particular 


118  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOI'IIER. 

details.  And  it  is  the  less  necessary,  when  we  consider  that 
every  instance  of  Divine  wisdom  is,  at  the  same  time,  an 
instance  of  hcncvolcnce  ;  for  it  is  the  ultimate  object  of  all 
the  wise  contrivances  in  the  system  of  nature,  that  happiness 
may  be  conmuinicated  to  the  various  ranks  of  sensitive  and 
intelligent  existence.  Goodness  chooses  the  end^  and  wisdom 
selects  the  most  proper  means  for  its  accomplishment;  so  that 
these  two  attributes  must  always  he  considered  in  simultaneous 
operation.  And  therefore,  the  instances  I  have  already  spe- 
cified of  the  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  the  Creator,  may  also 
be  considered  as  exemplitications  of  Divine  benevolence.  I 
shall  therefore  conclude  this  topic  with  the  following  extract 
from  Dr.  Pa  ley  : 

"  Contrivance  proves  design  ;  and  the  prominent  tendency 
of  the  contrivance  indicates  the  disposition  of  the  designer. 
The  world  abounds  with  contrivances;  and  all  the  contri- 
vances we  are  acquainted  with  are  directed  to  beneficial  pur- 
poses. Evil,  no  doubt,  exists;  but  it  is  never,  that  we  can 
perceive,  the  object  of  contrivance.  Teeth  are  contrived  to 
eat,  not  to  ache;  their  aching  now  and  then  is  incidental  to 
the  contrivance,  perhaps  inseparable  from  it:  or  even,  if  you 
Avill,  let  it  be  called  a  defect  in  the  contrivance,  but  it  is  not 
the  object  of  it.  This  is  a  distinction  that  well  deserves  to 
be  attended  to.  In  describing  implements  of  husbandry,  you 
would  hardly  say  of  a  sickle,  that  it  is  made  to  cut  the  reaper's 
fingers,  though,  from  the  construction  of  the  instrument,  and 
the  manner  of  using  it,  this  mischief  often  happens.  But  if 
you  had  occasion  to  describe  instruments  of  torture  or  exe- 
cution,— this,  you  would  say,  is  to  extend  the  sinews;  this 
to  dislocate  the  joints  ;  this  to  break  the  bones  ;  this  to  scorch 
the  soles  of  die  feet.  Here  pain  and  misery  are  the  very  ob- 
jects o{  the  contrivance.  Now,  nothing  of  this  sort  is  to  be 
found  in  the  works  of  nature.  We  never  discover  a  train  of 
contrivance  to  bring  about  an  evil  purpose.  No  anatomist 
ever  discovered  a  system  of  organization  calculated  to  pro- 
duce pain  and  disease;  or,  in  explaining  the  parts  of  the  hu- 
man body,  ever  said,  this  is  to  irritate ;  this  to  inflame ;  this 
duct  is  to  convey  the  gravel  to  the  kidneys ;  this  gland  to  se- 
crete the  humour  whicli  forms  the  gout.  If,  by  chance,  he 
come  at  a  part  of  which  he  knows  not-  the  use,  the  most  he 
can  say  is,  that  it  is  useless  ;  no  one  ever  suspects  that  it  is  put 
there  to  incommode,  to  annoy,  or  torment.  Since,  then,  God 
hath  called  forth  his  consummate  wisdom  to  contrive  and  pro- 
vide for  our  happiness,  and  the  world  appears  to  have  been 
constituted  with  this  design  at  first,  so  long  as  this  constitu- 


BE.VEVOLENCE  OF  THE  DEITY.  119 

tion  is  upheld  by  him,  we  must,  in  reason,  suppose  the  same 
design  to  continue."* 

Thus  1  have  endeavoured,  in  this  and  the  preceding  section, 
to  exhibit  a  few  specimens  of  the  wisdom  and  goochiess  of 
God  in  the  system  of  nature.  These  might  have  been  multi- 
plied to  an  indefinite  extent;  but  the  instances  adduced,  1  pre- 
sume, are  suflicient  to  show,  that  the  economy  of  the  material 
world  is  not  altogether  a  barren  subject  to  a  pious  and  con- 
templative mind.  Every  intelligent  believer  in  revelation  will 
readily  admit,  that  it  would  be  a  highly  desirable  object,  to 
induce,  upon  the  mass  of  Christians,  such  a  habit  of  devout 
attention  to  the  visible  works  of  creation,  as  would  lead  them, 
in  their  social  and  solitary  walks,  to  recognize  the  agency  of 
God  in  every  object  they  behold  ;  to  raise  their  thoughts  to 
him  as  the  Great  First  Cause,  and  to  expand  their  hearts  with 
emotions  of  gratitude.  How  very  different  must  be  the  senti- 
ments and  the  piety  of  the  man  who  looks  on  the  scene  of 
wisdom  and  raaguiticence  around  him  with  a  "  brute  ujicon- 
scious  gaze,"  as  thousands  of  professed  Christians  do — and 
the  grateful  and  pious  emotions  of  him  who  recognizes  the 
benevolent  agency  of  God,  in  the  motions  of  his  fingers  and 
his  eyeballs;  in  the  pulsation  of  his  heart;  in  the  picture  of 
external  objects  every  moment  formed  on  his  retina ;  in  the 
reflection  of  the  rays  of  light,  and  the  diversified  colours  they 
produce;  in  the  drying  of  his  clothes  ;  in  the  constitution  of 
the  atmosphere;  in  the  beauty  and  magnificence  of  the  earth 
and  the  heavens  ;  and  in  every  other  object  that  meets  his  eye 
in  the  expanse  of  nature  !  The  numberless  astonishing  in- 
stances of  Divine  agency,  which  every  where  present  them- 
selves to  our  view  in  the  scene  around  us,  seem  evidently  in- 
tended to  arrest  the  mind  to  a  consideration  of  an  "  ever-pre- 
sent Deity;"  and  I  envy  not  the  sentiments  or  the  feelings  of 
that  man,  who  imagines  that  he  stands  in  no  need  of  such 
sensible  mediums,  to  impress  his  mind  with  a  sense  of  the 
benevolent  care  and  omnipresence  of  God. 

*  Paley's  Moral  Philosophy,  Book  II.,  Chap.  v. 


120  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 


CHAPTER  II. 

COXTAINIXG  A  CURSORY  VIEW  OF  SOME  OF  THE  SCIENCES 
WHICH  ARE  RELATED  TO  RELIGION  AND  CHRISTIAN  THEO- 
LOGY. 

Theology  has  generally  been  viewed  as  a  study  of  a  very 
jimited  range:  and  hence,  when  it  has  been  admitted  into  the 
circle  of  the  sciences,  a  much  smaller  space  has  been  allotted 
for  its  discussion  than  has  been  devoted  to  almost  any  other 
department  of  human  knowledge.  When  considered,  how- 
ever, in  its  most  extensive  sense — in  its  relations  to  the  Divine 
Being — to  his  past  and  present  dispensations  towards  the 
human  race — to  the  present  circumstances  and  the  future  des- 
tiny of  man — and  to  the  physical  and  moral  condition  of  all 
the  sentient  and  intelligent  beings  of  which  we  have  any  inti- 
mation— it  ought  to  be  viewed  as  the  most  varied  and  com- 
prehensive of  all  the  sciences ;  as  embracing,  within  its  ex- 
tensive grasp,  all  the  other  departments  of  useful  knowledge 
both  human  and  divine.  As  it  has  God  for  its  object,  it  must 
include  a  knowledge  of  the  universe  he  has  formed — of  the 
movements  which  are  continually  going  on  throughout  the 
wide  extent  of  his  empire,  in  so  far  as  they  lie  open  to  our 
inspec'iion — of  the  attributes  which  appear  to  be  displayed  in 
all  his  operations — of  the  moral  laws  he  has  framed  for  the 
regulation  of  holy  intelligences — of  the  merciful  arrangements 
he  has  made  for  the  restoration  of  fallen  man — of  the  plans 
by  which  the  knowledge  of  his  will  is  to  be  circulated  and 
extended  in  the  world  in  which  we  live — of  the  means  by 
which  truth,  and  moral  purity,  and  order,  are  to  be  promoted 
among  our  apostate  race,  in  order  to  their  restoration  to  the 
happiness  they  have  lost — together  with  all  those  diversified 
ramiilcations  of  knowledge,  which  have  either  a  more  remote 
or  a  more  immediate  bearing  on  the  grand  objects  now  speci- 
fied. Like  the  lines  which  proceed  from  the  circumference  to 
the  centre  of  an  immense  circle — all  the  moral*  arts  and 
sciences  which  have  been  invented  by  men — every  department 
of  human  knowledge,  however  far  itliiay,  at  first  sight,  appear 
to  be  removed  from  religion — may  be  considered  as  having  a 

*  Tlie  epithet  moral  is  here  used  in  its  application  to  arts,  because  there 
are  certain  arts  which  must  be  considered  as  having  an  immoral  tendericy, 
such  as,  the  art  of  war,  the  art  of  boxing,  of  gambUng,  &c.,  and  which, 
thereiore,  cannot  have  a  direct  tendency  to  promote  the  objects  of  re- 
Usion. 


LNTRODUGTIO.N   TO  THE  SCIENCES.  121 

direct  bearing  on  theology,  as  the  grand  central  point,  and  as 
having  a  certain  tendency  to  promote  its  important  objects. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  that  theology  has  so  seldom 
hQen  contemplated  in  this  point  of  view — ^and  that  the  sciences 
have  been  considered  rather  as  so  many  independent  branches 
of  secular  knowledge,  than  as  subservient  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  facts  and  doctrines  of  religion,  and  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  its  benevolent  designs.  Hence  it  has  happened,  that 
philosophy  and  religion,  instead  of  marching  hand  in  hand  to 
the  portals  of  immortality,  have  frequently  set  themselves  in 
hostile  array;  and  combats  have  ensued  equally  injurious  to 
the  interests  of  both  parties.  The  philosopher  has  occasion- 
ally been  disposed  to  investigate  the  economy  of  nature, 
without  a  reference  to  the  attributes  of  that  Almighty  Being 
M'ho  presides  over  its  movements,  as  if  the  universe  were  a 
self-moving  and  independent  machine;  and  has,  not  unfre- 
quently,  taken  occasion,  from  certain  obscure  and  insulated 
facts,  to  throw  out  insinuations  hostile  to  the  truth  and  the 
character  of  the  Christian  revelation.  The  theologian,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  the  heat  of  his  intemperate  zeal  against  the  in- 
fidel philosopher,  has,  unguardedly,  been  led  to  declaim 
against  tlie  study  of  science,  as  if  it  were  unfriendly  to  reli- 
gion— has,  in  effect,  set  the  works  of  God  in  opposition  to  his 
word — has  confounded  the  foolish  theories  of  speculative 
minds  with  the  rational  study  of  the  works  of  Deity — and 
has  thus  prevented  the  mass  of  mankind  from  expanding  their 
minds,  by  the  contemplation  of  the  beauties  and  sublimities 
of  nature. 

it  is  now  high  time  that  a  complete  reconciliation  were 
effected  between  these  contending  parties.  Religion  ought 
never  to  disdain  to  derive  her  supports  and  illustrations  from 
the  researches  of  science  ;  for  the  investigations  of  philosophy 
into  the  economy  of  nature,  from  whatever  motives  they  may 
he  undertaken,  are  nothing  else  than  an  inquiry  into  the  plans 
and  operations  of  the  Eternal  IMind.  And  philosophy  ought 
always  to  consider  it  as  her  highest  honour  to  walk  as  a 
handmaid  in  the  train  of  that  religion  which  points  out  the 
path  to  the  regions  of  eternal  bliss.  By  their  mutual  aid,  and 
the  subserviency  of  the  one  to  the  other,  the  moral  and  intel- 
lectual improvement  of  man  will  be  promoted,  and  the  benevo- 
lent purposes  of  God,  in  the  kingdom  of  providence,  gradually 
accomplished.  But,  when  set  in  opposition  to  each  other,  the 
human  mind  is  bewildered  and  retarded  in  its  progress,  and 
the  Deity  is  apt  to  be  considered  as  set  in  opposition  to  him- 
self—as proclaiming  one  system  of  doctrines  from  the  eco- 
'   11 


122  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

nomy  of  revelation,  and  another,  and  an  opposite  system, 
from  tlie  economy  of  nature.  But  if  the  Christian  revelation, 
and  the  system  of  the  material  world,  derived  their  origin 
from  the  same  Almighty  Being,  the  most  complete  harmony 
must  subsist  between  the  revelations  they  respectively  unfold  ; 
and  the  apparent  inconsistencies  which  occur,  must  be  owing 
chiefly  to  the  circumstances  of  our  present  station  in  tlie  uni- 
verse, and  to  the  obscure  and  limited  views  we  are  obliged  to 
take  of  some  of  the  grand  and  diversified  objects  they  em- 
brace. And  tlierefore  we  have  reason  to  believe,  that  when 
the  system  of  nature  shall  be  more  extensively  explored,  and 
the  leading  objects  of  revelation  contemplated  in  a  clearer 
light,  without  being  tinged  with  the  false  colouring  of  party 
opinions  and  contracted  views,  and  when  rational  inquirers 
shall  conduct  their  researches  with  a  greater  degree  of  rever- 
ence, humility,  and  Christian  temper — the  beauty  and  harmony 
of  all  the  plans  and  revelations  of  the  Deity,  in  reference  both 
to  the  physical  and  the  moral  world,  will  be  more  distinctly 
perceived  and  appreciated. 

In  the  following  cursory  sketches,  it  forms  no  part  of  my 
plan  to  trace  even  an  outline  of  the  different  sciences  which 
are  connected  with  religion,  much  less  to  enter  into  any  par- 
ticular details  in  relation  to  their  facts  and  principles.  It 
would  be  comparatively  easy  to  fill  up  the  remaining  sheets 
of  this  volume  with  skeletons  of  the  different  sciences,  but 
such  meager  details  as  behoved  to  be  brought  forward,  could 
not  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader,  and  would  fail  in  ac- 
complishing the  objects  proposed.  My  design  simply  is,  to 
select  some  leading  facts,  or  general  truths,  in  relation  to  some 
of  the  physical  sciences,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  their  con- 
nexion with  the  objects  of  religion,  and  the  interests  of  rational 
piety.  At  the  same  time,  such  definite  descriptions  will  be 
given  as  will  enable  common  readers  to  appreciate  the  objects 
and  bearings  of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge  which 
may  be  presented  to  their  view. 

The  first  science*  I  shall  notice,  is  that  of 

NATURAL    HISTORY. 

This  science,  taken  in  its  most  comprehensive  sensef  in- 
cludes a  knowledge  and  description  of  all  the  known  facts  in 
the  material  universe. 

*  The  term  science,  in  its  most  general  and  extensive  sense,  signifies 
Tinowledge,  particularly  that  species  of  knowledge  which  is  acquired  by  the 
exertion  of  the  human  faculties.     In  a  more  restricted  sense,  ii  denotes  a 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  123 

It  is  to  be  regretted,  that  most  books  published  under  the 
title  of  JYatural  History^  to  which  common  readers  have  ac- 
cess, contain  nothing  more  than  a  general  description  of  ani- 
mals, as  if^  this  science  were  confined  merely  to  one  class  of 
beings-,  whereas  there  is  an  infinite  variety  of  other  objects 
seldom  noticed,  which  would  appear  no  less  interesting,  and, 
in  some  instances,  much  more  novel  and  gratifying  to  the  gene- 
ral reader,  and  to  the  youthful  mind.  All  the  diversified  forms 
of  matter,  whether  existing  on  the  surface  or  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth,  in  the  ocean,  the  atmosphere,  or  in  the  heavens, 
form  the  legitimate  objects  of  this  department  of  the  science 
of  nature. 

Were  we,  therefore,  to  sketch  a  comprehensive  outline  of 
the  subjects  of  natural  histor}^,  we  might,  in  the  first  place, 
take  a  cursory  survey  of  the  globe  we  inhabit,  in  reference  to 
its  magnitude,  figure,  motions,  and  general  arrangements — the 
form,  relations,  and  extent  of  its  continents — the  numerous 
islands  which  diversify  the  surface  of  the  ocean — the  magni- 
tude, the  direction,  and  the  extent  of  its  rivers,  and  the  quantity 
of  water  they  pour  into  the  ocean — the  direction,  elevation,  and 
extent  of  the  different  ranges  of  mountains  which  rise  from  its 
surface — the  plains,  morasses,  lakes,  forests,  dells,  and  sandy 
deserts,  which  diversify  its  aspect — the  extent,  the  motions, 
the  colour,  and  the  dilTerent  aspects  of  the  ocean,  and  the 
facts  which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  its  saltness,  its 
depth,  its  bottom  and  its  different  currents.  We  might  next 
take  a  more  particular  view  of  some  of  the  most  remarkable 
objects  on  its  surface,  and  give  a  detail  of  the  facts  which  are 
known  respecting  the  history  of  volcanoes — their  number — the 
countries  in  which  they  are  situated — the  awful  phenomena 
Ihey  exhibit — and  the  devastations  they  have  produced :  the 
history  of  earthquakes^  their  phenomena  and  effects,  and  the 
countries  most  subject  to  their  ravages — basaltic  and  rocky 
wonders,  natural  bridges,  precipices,  cataracts,  ice  islands,  ice- 
bergs, glaciers,  whirlpools,  mineral  wells,  reciprocating  foun- 
tains, boiling  springs,  sulphuric  mountains,  bituminous  lakes, 
volcanic  islands — the  various  aspects  of  nature  in  the  different 
zones,  and  the  contrasts  presented  between  the  verdant  scenes 
of  tropical  climes,  and  the  icy  cliffs  of  the  polar  regions.  We 
would  next  take  a  survey  of  the  subterraneous  wonders  which 

systematic  species  of  knowledge,  which  consists  of  rule  and  order,  such  as 
matheniatics,  astronomy,  natural  philosophy,  &c.  In  the  discussions 
contained  in  this  work,  it  is  used  in  its  most  general  sense,  as  denoting 
die  various  departments  of"  human  knowledge  ;  in  which  sense,  history, 
both  natural,  civil  and  sacred,  may  be  termed  science. 


124  CHRISTIAN   nilLOSOPHER. 

lie  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth — the  immense  chasms  and 
caverns  which  wind  in  various  directions  among  the  interior 
strata  of  our  globe — such  as  the  great  Kentucky  cavern,  and 
the  o-rotto  of  Antiparos — the  mines  of  salt,  coah  copper,  lead, 
diamond,  iron,  quicksilver,  tin,  gold,  and  silver — the  substances 
w  hich  compose  the  various  strata,  the  fossil  bones,  shells,  and 
petrifactions  which  are  imbedded  in  the  different  layers,  and 
the  bendings  and  disruptions  which  appear  to  have  taken 
phice  in  the  substances  which  compose  the  exterior  crust 
of  the  earth.  We  might  next  survey  the  aimosphere  with 
wliich  the  earth  is  environed,  and  give  a  detail  of  the  facts 
which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  its  specific  gravity  and 
pie.^sure,  the  elementary  principles  of  which  it  is  compounded, 
its  refractive  and  reflective  powers,  and  the  phenomena  which 
result  from  its  various  properties  and  modifications — the  me- 
tcurs  which  appear  in  its  diflerent  regions — thunder  and  light- 
ning, winds,  hail,  rain,  clouds,  rainbows;  parhelias  or  mock- 
suns,  meteoric  stones,  the  aurora  borealis,  luminous  arches, 
ignes  latui,  the  mirage,  the  fata  morgana,  hurricanes,  monsoons, 
whirlwinds  and  waterspouts,  sounds  and  echoes. 

h\  prosecuting  our  survey  of  sublunary  nature,  we  would 
next  advert  to  the  various  orders  of  the  vegetable  tribes^ — 
their  anatomical  structure — the  circulation  of  their  juices — 
the  food  by  which  they  are  nourished — the  influence  of  light 
and  air  on  their  growth  and  motions — their  male  and  female 
Qi-gans — their  periods  of  longevity — their  modes  of  propaga- 
tion— their  diseases  and  dissolution — their  orders,  genera, 
and  species — their  immense  variety — their  influence  on  the 
salubrity  of  the  atmosphere — the  relation  which  their  trunks, 
roots,  leaves,  and  fruits,  bear  to  the  wants  of  man  and  other 
animals,  in  supplying  food,  clothing  and  materials  for  con- 
structing habiuitions — the  gums  and  resinous  substances  they 
exude — the  odours  they  exhale — the  variety  of  colours  they 
exhibit — the  vast  diversity  of  forms  in  which  they  appear — 
and  the  beauty  and  variety  which  they  spread  over  the  whole 
face  of  nature. 

The  minpral  khigdom  would  next  require  to  be  surveyed. 
We  would  inquire  into  the  facts  which  have  been  ascertained 
respecting  the  earthy,  saline,  wjlammable,  and  metallic  sub- 
stances, which  are  found  on  the  surface  and  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth — their  specific  and  distinguishing  characters — the 
elementary  principles,  or  simple  substances,  of  which  they 
are  composed — the  regions  of  the  earth  where  the  respective 
minerals  most  frequently  abound — and  the  ends  which  they 
are  designed  to  accomplish  in  the  constitution  of  the  globe. 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  125 

We  would  consider,  more  particularly,  tlie  various  metals, 
such  as  iron,  copper,  lead,  tin,  gold,  silver,  bismuth,  zinc, 
Scc,  in  reference  to  the  substances  with  which  they  are  united 
in  their  native  ores — the  changes  produced  upon  them  by  the 
action  of  oxygen  and  the  different  acids — their  combustibility 
— their  combination  with  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  carbon — 
the  various  compounds  into  which  they  may  be  formed — 
their  important  uses  in  the  arts  which  minister  to  the  com- 
fort and  embellishment  of  human  life — their  relation  to  the 
multifarious  necessities  of  man — and  the  wisdom  and  good- 
ness of  the  Creator,  as  displayed  in  their  arrangement  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  and  in  the  admirable  properties  of  which 
they  are  possessed.  In  these  details,  the  natural  history  of 
iron  would  hold  a  prominent  place.  In  point  of  uiility^  it 
claims  the  highest  rank  in  the  class  of  metals,  and  is  intrinsi- 
cally more  valuable  than  gold  and  silver,  and  all  the  diamonds 
of  the  east.  There  is  scarcely  a  mineral  substance  in  the 
whole  compass  of  nature  which  affords  a  more  striking 
instance  of  the  beneficial  and  harmonious  adaptation  of  things 
in  the  universal  system.  We  would,  therefore,  consider  it  in 
reference  to  its  vast  abundance  in  all  parts  of  the  world — the 
numerous  substances  into  which  it  enters  into  combination — 
its  magnetical  property — its  capability  of  being  fused  and 
welded — the  numerous  useful  utensils  it  has  been  the  means 
of  producing — its  agency  in  carrying  forward  improvements 
in  arts  and  science,  in  the  civilization  of  barbarous  tribes,  and 
in  promoting  the  progress  of  the  human  mind;  and  the 
aids  which  it  affords  to  the  Christian  missionary  in  the  heathen 
lands. 

Having  surveyed  the  inanimate  parts  of  the  terraqueous 
globe,  and  its  appendages,  we  might  next  direct  our  attention 
to  the  animated  tribes  with  which  it  is  peopled.  Beginning 
at  vian^  the  head  of  the  animal  creation,  we  would  detail  the 
principal  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  his 
structure  and  organical  functions — the  muscular  movements 
of  the  human  body,  the  system  of  bones,  nerves,  veins,  and 
arteries ;  the  property  of  respiration ;  and  the  organs  of 
vision,  hearing,  smelling,  tasting,  and  feeling,  by  which  he 
holds  a  correspondence  with  the  material  world — the  modifi- 
cations which  appear  in  his  corporeal  frame,  and  in  his  men- 
tal faculties,  during  the  periods  of  infancy,  puberty,  manhood, 
and  old  age — the  causes  and  phenomena  of  sleep  and  dream- 
ing— the  varieties  of  the  human  race,  in  respect  of  colour, 
stature,  and  features — the  deviations  from  the  ordinary  course 
of  nature,  which  occasionally  occur,  in  the  case  of  monsters, 


126  CHKIsriA-N    FHILOSOrHER. 

dwarfs,  and  giants — the  moral  and  intellectual  faculties — and 
those  distinguishing  characteristics  which  prove  the  supe- 
riority of  man  over  tiie  other  tribes  of  animated  nature. 

The  inferior  ranks  of  the  animal  creation  would  next  de- 
mand our  attention.  We  would  take  a  survey  of  the  nume- 
rous tribes  of  quadrupeds^  hirds,  Jishes,  serpents,  lizards, 
and  insecls,  in  reference  to  the  characteristic  marks  by  which 
the  dillerent  species  are  distingiushed, — their  food,  and  habita- 
tions— the  diiferent  modes  in  which  they  display  their  archi- 
tective  faculty,  in  constructing  places  of  abode  for  shelter  and 
protection — the  clothing  with  which  they  are  furnished — theii* 
sagacity  in  finding  out  the  proper  means  for  subsistence  and 
self-preservation — their  hostilities — their  artifices  in  catching 
their  prey,  and  escaping  their  enemies — their  modes  of  pro- 
pagation— their  transformations  from  one  state  and  form  to  an- 
other— their  migrations  to  different  countries  and  climates — 
their  various  instincts — tlicir  care  in  rearing  and  protecting 
their  young — their  passions,  mental  characters,  and  social  dis- 
positions— tiieir  language  or  modes  of  communication  with 
each  other — their  capacities  for  instruction  and  improvement 
— their  different  powers  of  locomoti©n — the  adaptation  of  all 
their  organs  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  seem  intended — 
the  indications  they  give  of  being  possessed  of  moral  dispo- 
sitions and  rational  powers — their  different  periods  of  longe- 
vity, and  the  ends  which  they  are  intended  to  subserve  in  the 
system  of  nature.  Along  with  these  details,  certain  view^s 
might  be  exhibited  of  the  various  forms  of  sensitive  life,  and 
modes  of  existence,  which  obtain  in  those  numerous  species 
of  animals  which  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  \vhich 
the  microscope  discovers  in  almost  every  department  of 
nature. 

Having  surveyed  tlie  objects  which  compose  our  sublunary 
system,  we  woukl  next  direct  our  view  to  the  regions  of  the 
sky,  and  contemplate  the  facts  which  have  been  discovered  in 
relation  to  the  celestial  orbs.  We  w^ould  first  attend  to  the 
apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  the  different  points  of  the  hori- 
zon at  which  it  seems  to  rise  and  set,  and  the  different  de- 
grees of  elevation  to  which  it  arrives,  at  different  seasons  of 
the  year, — the  different  aspects  it  presents  as  viewed  from  dif- 
fei-ent  parts  of  the  earth's  suiface,  and  the  diiferent  lengths  of 
days  and  nights,  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  We  would 
next  attend  to  the  varied  pliases  of  the  moon — the  direct  and 
retrograde  motions  of  the  planets — the  apparent  diurnal  mo- 
tion of  the  whole  celestial  sphere,  from  east  to  west, — and  the 
different  rlnslers  of  stars  which  are  seen  in  our  nocturnal  sky, 


NATURAL  HISTORY,  127 

at  dilTerent  seasons  of  the  year.  We  would  next  consider  the 
deductions  which  science  has  made,  respecting  tlie  order  and 
arrangement  of  the  planets  which  compose  the  solar  system 
— their  distances  from  the  sun,  and  from  the  earth — their 
magnitudes — the  periods  of  their  diurnal  and  annual  revolu- 
tions— the  secondary  planets,  or  moons,  which  accompany 
them — their  eclipses — the  various  phenomena  which  their  sur- 
faces present  when  viewed  through  telescopes — the  physical 
influence  which  some  of  them  produce  on  the  surface  of  our 
globe — and  the  singular  appearance  of  those  bodies  called 
comets^  which  occasionally  visit  this  part  of  our  system.  We 
would,  in  the  next  place,  extend  our  views  to  the  starry 
regions,  and  consider  the  number  of  stars  which  present  them- 
selves to  the  naked  eye — the  immensely  greater  numbers 
which  are  discovered  by  telescopes — the  systems  into  which 
they  appear  to  be  arranged — the  facts  which  h-ave  been  ascer- 
tained respecting  neio  stars — double  and  treble  stars — stars 
once  visible,  which  have  now  disappeared  from  the  heavens — 
variable  stars,  whose  lustre  is  increased  and  diminished  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  time — and  the  structure  and  position  of  the 
many  hundreds  of  nehulce^  or  starry  systems,  which  appear 
to  be  dispersed  throughout  the  immensity  of  creation. 

All  the  particulars  now  stated,  and  many  others  which 
might  have  been  specified — considered  shnpJy  as  facts  which 
exist  in  the  system  of  nature — form  the  appropriate  and  legi- 
timate objects  of  natural  history,  and  demand  the  serious  at- 
tention of  every  rational  intelligence,  that  wishes  to  trace  the 
perfections  and  agency  of  the  Almighty  Creator.  To  investi- 
gate the  causes  of  the  diversified  phenomena  which  the  mate- 
rial world  exhibits,  and  the  principles  and  modes  by  which 
many  of  the  facts  now  alluded  to  are  ascertained,  is  the  pecu- 
liar province  of  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  and  the  mathe- 
matical sciences. 

Amidst  so  vast  a  variety  of  objects  as  natural  history  pre- 
sents, it  is  difficult  to  fix  on  any  particular  facts,  as  specimens 
of  the  interesting  nature  of  this  department  of  knowledge, 
without  going  beyond  the  limits  to  which  I  am  necessarily 
confined  in  this  volume.  I  shall  content  myself  with  a  de- 
scription of  two  objects,  which  have  a  reference  chiefly  to  the 
vegetable  kingdom.     The  first  of  these  is 

The  banian  tree. — "This  tree,  which  is  also  called  the 
Burr  trce^  or  the  Indian  fig  ^  is  one  of  the  most  curious  and 
beautiful  of  nature's  productions,  in  the  genial  climate  of 
India,  where  she  sports  with  the  greatest  variety  and  profu- 
sion.    Each  tree  is  in  itself  a  grove ;  and  some  of  them  are 


128  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

of  an  amazing  size  and  extent,  and,  contrary  to  most  other 
animal  and  vegetable  productions,  seem  to  be  exempted  from 
decay.  Every  branch  from  the  main  body  throws  out  its  own 
roots ;  at  first,  in  small  tender  fibres,  several  yards  from  the 
ground  ;  these  continually  grow  thicker,  until,  by  a  gradual 
descent,  they  reach  the  surface,  and  there,  striking  in,  they 
increase  to  large  trunks,  and  become  parent  trees,  shooting 
out  new  brandies  from  the  tops.  These  in  time  suspend  their 
roots,  and,  receiving  nourishment  from  the  earth,  swell  into 
trunks,  and  shoot  forth  other  branches;  thus  continuing  in  a 
stale  of  progression,  so  long  as  the  earth,  the  first  parent  of 
them  all,  contributes  her  sustenance.  A  banian  tree,  with 
many  trunks,  forms  the  most  beautiful  walks,  vistas,  and  cool 
recesses,  that  can  be  imagined.  The  leaves  are  large,  soft, 
and  of  a  lively  green,  about  six  inches  in  length ;  the  fruit  is 
a  small  fig,  when  ripe,  of  a  bright  scarlet,  affording  sustenance 
to  monkeys,  squirrels,  peacocks,  and  birds  of  various  kinds, 
which  dwell  among  the  branches. 

"  The  Hindoos  are  peculiarly  fond  of  the  banian  tree  ;  they 
consider  its  long  duration,  its  outstretching  arms,  and  its  over- 
shadowing beneficence,  as  emblems  of  the  Deity,  and  almost 
pay  it  divine  honours.  The  bramins,  who  thus  '  find  a  fane 
in  every  sacred  grove,'  spend  much  of  their  time  in  religious 
solitude,  under  the  shade  of  the  banian  tree ;  they  plant  it 
near  their  temples  or  pagodas ;  and  in  those  villages  where 
there  is  no  structure  erected  for  public  worship,  they  place  an 
image  under  one  of  these  trees,  and  there  perform  a  morning 
and  evening  sacrifice.  The  natives  of  all  castes  and  tribes  are 
fond  of  recreating  in  the  cool  recesses,  beautiful  walks,  and 
lovely  vistas  of  this  umbrageous  canopy,  impervious  to  the 
hottest  beams  of  a  tropical  sun.  It  is  recorded  that  one  of 
these  trees  shaded  all  the  town  of  Fort  St.  David  and  Gom- 
broon. These  are  the  trees  under  which  a  sect  of  naked 
philosophers,  called  Gymnosophists,  assembled  in  Arrian's 
days,  and  this  historian  of  ancient  Greece  presents  a  true  pic- 
ture of  the  modern  Hindoos.  'In  winter,'  he  says,  'the 
Gymnosophists  enjoy  the  benefit  of  the  sun's  rays  in  the  open 
air;  and,  in  summer,  when  the  heat  becomes  excessive,  they 
pass  their  time  in  cool  and  moist  places,  under  large  trees, 
which,  according  to  the  accounts  of  Nearchus,  cover  a  cir- 
cumference of  five  acrcs^  and  extend  their  branches  so  far,  that 
te7i  thousand  men  may  easily  find  shelter  under  them.' 

"  On  the  banks  of  the  river  Narbudda,  in  the  province  of 
Guzzerat,  is  a  banian  tree,  supposed,  by  some  persons,  to  be 
the  one  described  by  Nearchus,  who  commanded  the  fleet  of 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  129 

Alexander  the  Great,  and  certainly  not  inferior  to  it.  It  is 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  Cabbeer  Burr,  which  was  given 
it  in  honom-  of  a  famous  saint,  Forbes,  in  his  'Oriental  Me- 
moirs,' when  speaking  of  the  age  of  such  trees,  states  that  he 
smoked  his  hookha  under  the  very  banian  beneath  which 
part  of  Alexander's  cavalry  took  shelter.  High  floods  have, 
at  various  times,  swept  away  a  considerable  part  of  this  extra- 
ordinary tree;  but  what  still  remains  is  nearly  two  thousand 
feet  in  circumference,  measured  round  the  principal  stems; 
the  overhanging  branches,  not  yet  struck  down,  cover  a  much 
larger  space ;  and  under  it  grow  a  number  of  custard-cipple 
and  other  fruit  trees.  The  large  truidvs  of  this  single  tree 
amount  to  three  hundred  and  fifty;  and  the  smaller  ones  ex- 
ceed three  thousand  ;  every  one  of  these  is  constantly  sending 
forth  branches  and  hanging  roots  to  form  other  trunks,  and 
become  the  parents  of  a  future  progeny.  The  Cubbeer  Burr 
is  famed  throughout  Hindostan,  not  only  on  account  of  its 
great  extent,  but  also  of  its  surpassing  beauty.  The  Indian 
armies  generally  encamp  around  it;  and  at  stated  seasons, 
solemn  Jatarras,  or  Hindoo  festivals,  to  wdiich  thousands  of 
votaries  repair  from  every  part  of  the  Mogul  empire,  are  there 
celebrated.  It  is  said  that  seven  thousand  persons  find  ample 
room  to  repose  under  its  shade.  It  has  long  been  the  cust^Ma 
of  the  British  residents  in  India,  in  their  hunting  and  shooting 
parties,  to  form  extensive  encampments,  and  spend  weeks  to- 
gether, under  this  delightful  and  magnificent  pavilion,  which 
affords  a  shelter  to  all  travellers,  particularly  to  the  religious 
tribes  of  the  Hindoos.  It  is  generally  filled  with  greenwood 
pigeons,  doves,  peacocks,  and  a  variety  of  feathered  songsters 
— with  monkeys,  which  both  divert  the  spectator  by  their 
antic  tricks,  and  interest  him  by  the  parental  affection  they 
display  to  their  young  offspring,  in  teaching  them  to  select 
their  food,  and  to  exert  themselves  in  jumping  from  bough  to 
bough, — and  is  shaded  by  bats  of  a  large  size,  many  of  them 
measuring  upwards  of  six  feet  from  the  extremity  of  one 
wing  to  the  other.  This  tree  affords  not  only  shelter,  but 
sustenance,  to  all  its  inhabitants,  being  covered,  amid  its  bright 
foliage,  with  small  figs,  of  a  rich  scarlet,  on  which  they  all 
reo^ale  with  as  much  delight  as  the  lords  of  creation  on  their 
more  costly  fare,  in  their  parties  of  pleasure." 

The  annexed  figure  will  convey  a  general,  though  im- 
perfect idea  of  this  singular  tree,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  branches  from  the  main  body  throw  out  their 
shoots,  and  form  the  numerous  vistas  which  are  found  under 
its  shade. 


130 


christian  philosopher. 
Fig.  1-2. 


This  tree,  which  is  doubtless  one  of  the  most  singular  and 
magnificent  objects  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  appears  to  be  a 
world  in  miniature,  in  which  thousands,  both  of  human  beings, 
and  of  the  inferior  tribes  that  traverse  the  earth  and  the  air, 
mav  find  ample  accommodation  and  subsistence.  What  a 
striking  contrast  does  it  present  to  the  forests  of  trees,  or 
mushrooms,  which  are  perceived  by  the  help  of  the  micro- 
scope, in  a  piece  of  mouldiness — every  plant  of  which  is  seve- 
ral hundreds  of  times  smaller  than  the  point  of  a  fine  needle , 
Yet  both  are  the  effects  of  the  agency  of  the  same  all-wise 
and  omnipotent  Being.  And  what  an  immense  variety  of 
gradations  is  to  be  found  in  the  vegetable  world,  between 
these  two  extremes — every  part  of  the  vast  interval  being 
filled  up  with  flowers,  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees,  of  every  colour, 
form,  and  size,  and  in  such  vast  multitudes  and  profusion  that 
no  man  can  number  them ! 

An  object,  which  approximates  in  a  certain  degree  to  the 
one  now  described,  is  mentioned  in  '  Staunton's  Account  of 
Macartney's  Embassy  to  China,'  p.  70.  It  is  called,  by  bota- 
nists, Adansonia^  and  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  the 
monkey  bread  tree^  and  was  discovered  in  the  island  of  St. 
.Tago.  "The  circumference,  or  girth  of  the  base,  was  fifty- 
six  feet,  which  soon  divided  into  two  vast  branches,  the  one 
in  a  perpendicular  direction,  whose  periphery,  or  girth,  was 
forty-two  feet,  the  other  twenty-six.     Another,  of  the  same 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  131 

species,  stood  near  it,  whose  single  trunk,  girthing  ttiirty-eight 
feet,  was  scarcely  noticed." 

The  only  other  specimen  I  shall  exhibit  to  the  reader  has 
a  relation  both  the  animal  and  to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  it 
is  well  known  that  the  examination  of  flowers  and  vegetables, 
of  every  description,  by  the  microscope,  opens  a  new  and  in- 
teresting field  of  wonders  to  the  inquiring  naturalist.  Sir 
John  Hill  has  given  the  following  curious  account  of  what 
appeared  on  his  examining  a  carnation  : — 

"  The  principal  flower  in  an  elegant  bouquet  was  a  carna- 
tion ;  the  fragrance  of  this  led  me  to  enjoy  it  frequently  and 
near.  The  sense  of  smelling  was  not  the  only  one  affected  on 
these  occasions ;  while  that  was  satiated  with  the  powerful 
sweet,  the  ear  was  constantly  attacked  by  an  extremely  soft, 
but  agreeable  murmuring  sound.  It  was  easy  to  know,  that 
some  animal  within  the  covert  must  be  the  musician,  and  that 
the  little  noise  must  come  from  some  little  creature  suited  to 
produce  it.  I  instantly  distended  the  lower  part  of  the  flower, 
and  placing  it  in  a  full  light,  could  discover  troops  of  little 
insects  frisking,  with  wild  jollity,  among  the  narrow  pedestals 
that  supported  its  leaves,  and  the  little  threads  that  occupied 
its  centre.  What  a  fragrant  world  for  their  habitation  !  What 
a  perfect  security  from  all  annoyance,  in  the  dusky  husk  that 
surrounded  the  scene  of  action !  Adapting  a  microscope  to 
take  in,  at  one  view,  the  whole  base  of  the  flower,  I  gave  my- 
self an  opportunity  of  contemplating  what  they  were  about, 
and  this  for  many  days  together,  without  giving  them  the 
least  disturbance.  Thus,  I  could  discover  their  economy, 
their  passions,  and  their  enjoyments.  The  microscope,  on 
this  occasion,  had  given  what  nature  seemed  to  have  denied 
to  the  objects  of  contemplation.  The  base  of  the  flower  ex- 
tended itself,  under  its  influence,  to  a  vast  plain ;  the  slender 
stems  of  the  leaves  became  trunks  of  so  many  stately  cedars ; 
the  threads  in  the  middle  seemed  columns  of  massy  structure, 
supporting  at  the  top  their  several  ornaments ;  and  the  narrow- 
spaces  between  were  enlarged  in  walks,  parterres,  and  terraces. 
On  the  polished  bottoms  of  these,  brighter  than  Parian  mar- 
ble, walked  in  pairs,  alone,  or  in  larger  companies,  the  winged 
inhabitants ;  these,  from  little  dusky  flies,  for  such  only  the 
naked  eye  would  have  shown  them,  were  raised  to  glorious 
glittering  animals,  stained  with  living  purple,  and  with  a 
glossy  gold,  that  would  have  made  all  the  labours  of  the  loom 
contemptible  in  the  comparison.  I  could,  at  leisure,  as  they 
walked  together,  admire  their  elegant  limbs,  their  velvet 
shoulders^  and  their  silken  wings;  their  backs  vying  with  the 


132  CHRISTIAN   PIllLOSOrilER, 

empyrean  in  its  blue;  and  their  eyes,  each  formed  of  a  thou- 
sand others,  out-glittering  the  little  planes  on  a  brilliant;  above 
description,  and  too  great  almost  for  admiration.  1  could  ob- 
serve them  here  singling  out  their  favourite  females;  courting 
thejn  with  the  music  of  their  buzzing  wings,  with  little  songs, 
formed  for  their  little  organs,  leading  them  from  walk  to  walk, 
among  the  perfumed  shades,  and  pointing  out  to  their  taste, 
the  drop  of  liquid  nectar,  just  bursting  from  some  vein  within 
the  living  trunk — here  were  the  perfumed  groves,  the  more 
than  mystic  shades  of  the  poet's  fancy  realized.  Here  the 
happy  lovers  spent  their  days  in  joyful  dalliance,  or,  in  the 
triumph  of  their  little  hearts,  skipped  after  one  another,  from 
stem  to  stem,  among  the  painted  trees,  or  winged  their  short 
flight  to  the  close  shadow  of  some  broader  leaf,  to  revel  un- 
disturbed in  the  heights  of  all  felicity." 

This  picture  of  the  splendour  and  felicity  of  insect  life, 
may,  to  certain  readers,  appear  somewhat  overcharged.  But 
those  who  have  been  much  in  the  habit  of  contemplating  the 
beauties  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  world,  through  micro- 
scopes, can  easily  enter  into  all  the  views  which  are  here  de- 
scribed. 1  have  selected  this  example,  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating the  unbounded  goodness  of  the  Creator,  in  the  vast 
profusion  of  enjoyment  he  has  communicated  even  to  the 
lowest  tribes  of  animal  existence,  and  as  a  specimen  of  those 
invisible  worlds  which  exist  beyond  the  range  of  our  natural 
vision.  For  it  appears,  that  there  is  a  gradation  of  worlds 
downwards,  as  well  as  upwards.  However  small  our  globe 
may  appear  when  compared  with  the  sun,  and  with  the  im- 
mensity of  starry  systems  wdiich  lie  dispersed  through  the  in- 
finity of  space,  there  are  worlds  filled  with  myriads  of  living 
beings,  which,  in  point  of  size  and  extent,  bear  as  small  a 
proportion  to  the  earth,  as  the  earth  bears  to  the  vast  assem- 
blage of  the  celestial  worlds.  A  single  flower,  a  leaf,  or  a 
drop  of  water,  may  appear  as  large,  and  as  diversified  in  its 
structure,  to  some  of  the  beings  which  inhabit  it,  as  the  whole 
earth  appears  to  the  view  of  man ;  and  a  thousand  scenes  of 
magnificence  and  beauty  may  be  presented  to  their  siglit,  of 
which  no  distinct  conception  can  be  formed  by  the  human  mind. 
The  many  thousands  of  transparent  globes,  of  which  their  eyes 
are  composed,  may  magnify  and  multiply  the  objects  around 
them  without  end,  so  that  an  object  scarcely  visible  to  the  eye 
of  man,  may  appear  to  them  as  a  vast  extended  universe. 

"Having  examined,"  says  St.  Pierre,  "one  day,  by  a  mi- 
croscope, the  flowers  of  thyme,  1  distinguished  in 'them,  with 
equal  surprise  and  delight,  superb  flagons  with  a  long  neck, 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  133 

of  a  substance  resembling  tlie  amethyst,  from  tlie  gullets  of 
which  seemed  to  flow  ingots  of  liquid  gold.  I  have  never 
made  observations  of  the  corolla^  simply  of  the  smallest  flower, 
without  finding  it  composed  of  an  admirable  substance,  halt 
transparent,  studded  wiili  brilliants,  and  shining  in  the  most 
lively  colours.  The  beings  which  live  under  a  reflex  thus  en- 
riched, must  have  ideas  very  different  from  ours,  of  light  and 
of  the  other  phenomena  of  nature.  A  drop  of  dew,  rilterhig 
in  the  capillary  and  transparent  tubes  of  a  plant,  presents  to 
them  thousands  of  cascades ;  the  same  drop  fixed  as  a  wave 
on  the  extremity  of  one  of  its  prickles,  an  ocean  without  a 
shore;  evaporated  into  air,  a  vast  aerial  sea.  It  is  credible, 
then,  from  analogy,  that  there  are  animals  feeding  on  the  leaves 
of  plants,  like  the  cattle  in  our  meadows  and  on  our  moun- 
tains, which  repose  under  the  shade  of  a  down  imperceptible 
to  the  naked  eye,  and  which,  from  goblets  formed  like  so 
many  suns,  quaff  nectar  of  the  color  of  gold  and  silver." 

Thus  it  appears,  that  the  universe  extends  to  infinity  on 
either  hand  ;  and  that  wherever  matter  exists,  from  the  pon- 
derous globes  of  heaven  down  to  the  invisible  atom,  tliere  the 
Almighty  Creator  has  prepared  habitations  for  countless  orders 
of  existence,  from  the  seraph  to  the  animalculum,  in  order  to 
demonstrate  his  boundless  beneficence,  and  the  infinite  variety 
of  modes  by  which  he  can  diflJ'use  happiness  through  the  uni- 
versal system. 

"  How  sweet  to  muse  upon  His  skill,  display'd — ' 
Infinite  skill ! — in  all  that  he  has  made, 
To  trace  in  nature's  most  minute  design 
The  signature  and  stamp  of  Power  Divine  ; 
Contrivance  exquisite,  express'd  with  ease, 
Where  unassisted  sight  no  beauty  sees; 
The  shapely  limb  and  lubricated  joint, 
Within  the  small  dimensions  of  a  point ; 
Muscle  and  nerve  miraculously  spun, 
His  mighty  work,  who  speaks  and  it  is  done : 
Th'  Invisible  in  things  scarce  seen  reveal'd  ; 
To  whom  an  atom  is  an  ample  field !" — Cowfer. 

With  regard  to  the  religious  tendency  of  the  study  of  na- 
tural history,  it  may  be  remarked,  that,  as  all  the  objects  which 
it  embraces  are  the  loorkmanship  of  God^  the  delineations  and 
descriptions  of  the  natural  historian  must  be  considered  as 
"the  history  of  the  operations  of  the  Creator;"  or,  in  other 
words,  so  far  as  the  science  extends,  "  the  history  of  the  Crea- 
tor himself;"  for  the  marks  of  his  incessant  agency,  his  power, 
wisdom,  and  beneficence,  are  impressed  on  every  object,  how- 
ever minute,  throughout  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature,  and 
throughout  every  region  of  earth,  air,  and  sky.    As  the  Deity 

12 


134  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

is  invisible  to  mortal  eyes,  and  cannot  be  directly  contem- 
plated by  finite  minds,  without  some  material  medium  of  com- 
munication, there  are  but  two  mediums  with  which  we  are 
acquainted,  by  which  we  can  attain  a  knowledge  of  his  nature 
and  perfections.  These  are,  either  the  fads  which  have  oc- 
curred in  the  course  of  his  providential  dispensations  towards 
our  race,  since  the  commencement  of  time,  and  the  moral 
truths  connected  with  them — or  the  facts  which  are  displayed 
in  the  economy  of  nature.  The  first  class  of  facts  is  recorded 
in  the  Sacred  History,  and  in  the  annals  of  nations;  the  se- 
cond class  is  exhibited  in  the  diversified  objects  and  motions 
which  appear  throughout  the  system  of  the  visible  universe. 
The  one  may  be  termed  the  moral  history,  and  the  other  the 
natural  history  of  the  operations  of  the  Creator.  It  is  obvi- 
ously incumbent  on  every  rational  being  to  contemplate  the 
Creator  through  both  these  mediums,  for  each  of  them  con- 
veys its  distinct  and  peculiar  revelations ;  and  consequently, 
our  perceptions  of  Deity  through  the  one  medium,  does  not 
supersede  the  necessity  of  our  contemplating  him  through  the 
other.  While  therefore  it  is  our  duty  to  contemplate  the  per- 
fections, the  providence,  and  the  agency  of  God,  as  displayed 
in  the  Scripture  revelation,  it  is  also  incumbent  upon  us  to 
trace  his  attributes  in  the  system  of  nature,  in  order  that  we 
may  be  enabled  to  contemplate  the  Eternal  Jehovah,  in  every 
variety  of  aspect  in  which  he  has  been  pleased  to  exhibit  him- 
self in  the  universe  he  has  formed. 

The  visible  creation  may  be  considered  as  a  permanent  and 
sensible  manifestation  of  Deity;  intended  every  moment  to 
present  to  our  view  the  unceasing  energies  of  Him  "  in  whom 
we  live  and  move."  And  if  the  train  of  our  thoughts  were 
directed  in  its  proper  channel,  we  would  perceive  God  in 
every  object  and  in  every  movement;  we  would  behold  him 
operating  in  the  whirlwind  and  in  the  storm;  in  the  subter- 
raneous cavern  and  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean ;  in  the  gentle 
rain  and  the  refreshing  breeze ;  in  the  rainbow,  the  fiery 
meteor,  and  the  lightning's  flash  ;  in  the  splendours  of  the  sun 
and  the  majestic  movements  of  the  heavens ;  in  the  frisking 
of  the  lambs,  the  songs  of  birds,  and  the  buzz  of  insects ;  in 
the  circulation  of  our  blood,  the  movements  of  our  joints,  the 
motion  of  our  eyeballs,  and  in  the  rays  of  light  which  are 
continually  darting  from  surrounding  objects,  for  the  purposes 
of  vision.  For  these,  and  ten  thousand  other  agencies  in  the 
system  of  nature,  are  nothing  else  but  the  voice  of  Deity, 
proclaiming  to  the  sons  of  men,  in  silent  but  emphatic  lan- 
guage, "  Stand  still,  and  consider  the  wonderful  works  of  God." 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  135 

If,  then,  it  be  admitted,  that  the  study  of  Nature  is  the  study 
of  the  Creator — to  overlook  the  grand  and  beautiful  scenery 
with  which  we  are  surrounded,  or  to  undervalue  any  thing 
which  Infinite  Wisdom  has  formed,  is  to  overlook  and  contemn 
the  Creator  himself.  Whatever  God  has  thought  proper  to 
create,  and  to  present  to  our  view  in  the  visible  world,  it  be- 
comes man  to  study  and  to  contemplate,  that  from  thence  he 
may  derive  motives  to  excite  him  to  the  exercise  of  reverence 
and  adoration,  of  gratitude  and  praise.  In  so  far  as  any  indi- 
vidual is  unacquainted  with  the  various  facts  of  the  history 
of  nature,  in  so  far  does  he  remain  ignorant  of  the  manifesta- 
tions of  Deity  ;  for  every  object  on  the  theatre  of  the  universe 
exhibits  his  character  and  designs  in  a  different  point  of  view. 
He  who  sees  God  only  as  he  displays  himself  in  his  operations 
on  the  earth,  but  has  never  contemplated  the  firmament  with 
the  eye  of  reason,  must  be  unacquainted  with  those  amazing 
energies  of  eternal  power,  which  are  displayed  in  the  stu- 
pendous fabric  and  movements  of  the  orbs  of  heaven.  He 
who  sees  God  only  in  the  general  appearances  of  nature,  but 
neglects  to  penetrate  into  his  minute  operations,  must  remain 
ignorant  of  those  astonishing  manifestations  of  Divine  wisdom 
and  skill  which  appear  in  the  contrivances,  adaptations,  and 
functions  of  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms.  For  the 
mure  we  know  of  the  work,  the  more  accurate  and  compre- 
hensive will  be  our  views  of  the  Intelligence  by  whom  it  was 
designed ;  and  the  farther  we  carry  our  investigations  of  the 
works  of  God,  the  more  admirable  and  astonishing  will  his 
plans  and  perfections  appear. 

In  short,  a  devout  contemplation  of  the  works  of  nature 
tends  to  ennoble  the  human  soul,  and  to  purify  and  exalt  the 
affections.  It  inspires  the  mind  with  a  relish  for  the  beauty, 
the  harmony,  and  order  which  subsists  in  the  universe  around 
us — it  elevates  the  soul  to  the  love  and  admiration  of  that 
Being  who  is  the  Author  of  all  our  comforts,  and  of  all  that 
is  sublime  and  beneficent  in  creation,  and  excites  us  to  join 
with  all  holy  beings  in  a  chorus  of  praise  to  the  God  and 
Father  of  all.     For  they 

"  Whom  nature's  works  can  charm,  with  God  himself 
Hold  converse,  grow  famlHar,  day  by  day, 
With  his  conceptions,  act  upon  his  plan, 
A.nd  form  to  his  the  reUsh  of  their  souls." 

The  man  who  surveys  the  vast  field  of  nature  with  the  eye 
of  reason  and  devotion,  will  not  only  acquire  a  more  compre- 
hensive view  of  that  illimitable  power  which  organized  the 


136  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOFHER. 

universe,  but  will  find  his  sources  of  enjoyment  continually 
increased,  and  will  feel  an  ardent  desire  after  that  glorious 
world,  where  tlie  veil  which  now  hides  from  our  sight  some 
of  the  grandest  manifestations  of  Deity  will  be  withdrawn, 
and  the  wonders  of  Omnipotence  be  displayed  in  all  their 
splendour  and  perfection. 

in  conformity  with  these  sentiments,  we  find  the  inspired 
writers,  in  numerous  instances,  calling  our  attention  to  the 
Monders  of  creating  power  and  Avisdom.  Jn  one  of  the  first 
speeches  in  which  the  Almighty  is  introduced  as  addressing 
the  sons  of  men,  and  the  longest  one  in  the  Bible,*  our  atten- 
tion is  exclusively  directed  to  the  subjects  of  natural  history  ; 
— the  whole  address  having  a  reference  to  the  economy  of^ 
Divine  wisdom  in  the  arrangement  of  the  world  at  its  first 
creation — the  wonders  of  the  ocean,  and  of  light  and  dark- 
ness— the  phenomena  of  thunder  and  lightning,  rain,  hail, 
snow,  frost,  and  other  meteors  in  the  atmosphere — the  intel- 
lectual faculties  of  man,  and  the  economy  and  instincts  of 
quadrupeds,  birds,  fishes,  and  other  tribes  of  animated  existence. 
Indeed,  the  greater  part  of  the  sublime  descriptions  contained 
in  the  Book  of  Job,  has  a  direct  reference  to  the  agency  of 
God  in  the  material  creation,  and  to  the  course  of  his  provi- 
dence in  relation  to  the  difterent  characters  of  men  ;  and  the 
reasonings  of  the  different  speakers  in  that  sacred  drama 
proceed  on  the  supposition,  that  their  auditors  were  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  varied  appearances  of  nature,  and  their 
tendency  to  exhibit  the  character  and  perfections  of  the  Om- 
nipotent Creator.  We  find  the  Psalmist,  in  Psalm  civ.,  em- 
ployed in  a  devout  description  of  similar  objects,  from  the 
contemplation  of  which  his  mind  is  raised  to  adoring  views 
of  their  Almighty  Author — and,  from  the  whole  of  his  survey, 
he  deduces  the  following  conclusions  : — "  How  manifold  are 
tliy  works,  O  Lord !  In  wisdom  thou  hast  made  them  all ! 
The  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches ;  so  is  this  great  and  wide  sea, 
Avherein  are  things  creeping  innumerable,  both  small  and  great 
beasts.  The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  endure  for  ever;  the 
Lord  shall  rejoice  in  all  his  works.f     1  wdll  sing  unto  the 

*  Job,  chaps,  xxxviii,  xxxix,  xl,  xli. 

t  '^I'he  glory  of  the  Lord,  in  this  passage,  denotes  the  display  of  his  per- 
fections in  the  material  universe  ;  and  the  declaration  of  the  inspired  writer 
plainly  intimates,  that  this  display  will  continue  for  ever,  and  will  remain 
as  an  object  of  unceasing  contemplation  to  all  intelligences,  and  as  an 
eternal  monument  of  his  power  and  wisdom.  For  although  the  earth  and 
the  aerial  heavens  will  be  changed  at  the  close  ot  that  dispensation  of 
Providence  which  respects  our  world,  yet  (he  general  frame  of  the  uni- 
verse, in  its  other  parts,  will  remain  substantially  the  same ;  and  not  only 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  "  137 

Lord  as  long  as  1  live ;  I  will  sing  praises  to  my  God  while  I 
have  my  being," 

But  in  order  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  such  sublime  reflec- 
tions, we  must  not  content  ourselves  with  a  superficial  and 
cursory  view  of  the  objects  and  operations  of  nature, — we 
must  not  think  it  sufficient  to  acquiesce  in  such  vague  propo- 
tions  as  these  : — '-  The  glory  of  God  is  seen  in  every  bjade 
of  grass,  and  every  drop  of  water;  all  nature  is  full  of 
wonders,  from  the  dust  of  the  earth  to  the  stars  of  the  firma- 
ment." We  must  study  the  works  of  creation  with  ardour, 
survey  them  with  minute  attention,  and  endeavour  to  acquire 
a  specific  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  Creator's  de- 
signs. We  must  endeavour  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the 
particular  modes,  circumstances,  contexture,  configurations, 
adaptations,  structure,  functions,  and  relations  of  those  objects 
in  which  benevolence  and  design  conspicuously  appear — in 
the  animal  and  the  vegetable  world,  in  the  ocean,  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  the  heavens  ;  that  the  mind  may  be  enabled  to  draw 
the  conclusion  with  full  conviction  and  intelligence — "  In 
wisdom  thou  hast  made  them  all .'"  The  pointed  interrogato- 
ries which  Jehovah  addressed  to  Job,  evidently  imply  that 
Job  had  previously  acquired  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
works  of  nature.  It  seems  to  be  taken  for  granted,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  that  he  had  made  himself  acquainted  with  the  general 
range  of  facts  in  the  visible  creation ;  and  the  intention  of  the 
several  questions  presented  to  his  consideration  evidently  was, 
to  impress  him  with  a  sense  of  his  own  impotency,  and  to 
lead  him  to  the  investigation  of  the  wonders  of  the  creating 
power,  which  he  had  formerly  overlooked.  The  conclusion 
which  the  Psalmist  draws  respecting  the  wisdom  displayed 
throughout  all  the  works  of  God,  plainly  intimates,  that  he 
had  made  the  different  parts  of  nature  the  subject  of  minute 
examination  and  of  deep  reflection ;  otherwise  he  could  not 
have  rationally  deduced  his  conclusion,  or  felt  those  emotions 
which  filled  his  mind  with  the  pious  rapture  so  beautifully 
expressed  in  that  hymn  of  praise  to  the  Creator  of  the  world. 

We  have  therefore  reason  to  believe,  from  these  and  other 
instances,  that  pious  men,  "  in  the  days  of  old,"  were  much 
more  accustomed  than  modern  Christians  to  contemplate  and 
admire  the  visible  works  of  the  Lord  ;  and  it  is  surely  much 
to  be  regretted,  that  we,  who  enjoy  so  many  superior  means 

so,  but  will,  in  all  probability,  be  perpetually  increasing  in  magnitude  and 
grandeur.  And  the  change  which  will  be  effected  in  respect  to  the  terra- 
queous globe  and  its  appendages,  will  be  such  that  Jehovah  will  have 
reason  to  "  rejoice"  in  this,  as  well  as  in  all  his  other  works. 

12* 


138  CHRISTIAX    PHILOSOniER. 

of  information,  and  who  have  access  to  the  brilliant  disco- 
veries of  later  and  more  enlightened  times,  should  manifest  so 
much  disregard  to  "  the  works  of  Jehovah,  and  the  operations 
of  his  hands."  To  enable  the  common  mass  of  Christians  to 
enter  into  the  spirit  of  this  delightful  study  and  Christian 
dufy,  should,  therefore,  be  one  object  of  those  periodical  and 
other  religious  works  which  are  put  into  their  hands ;  so  that 
they  may  be  enabled,  with  vigour  and  intelligence,  to  form 
the  pious  resolution  of  Asaph,  "  I  will  meditate  on  all  thy 
works,  O  Lord !  and  talk  of  thy  doings."  "  1  will  utter 
abundantly  the  memory  of  thy  great  goodness,  and  tell  of  all 
thy  wondrous  works." 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The  next  department  of  knowledge  I  shall  notice  is  the 
science  of  geography. 

The  object  of  this  science  is,  to  describe  the  world  we  in- 
habit, in  reference  to  the  continents,  islands,  mountains,  oceans, 
seas,  rivers,  empires  and  kingdoms  with  which  it  is  diversified, 
together  with  the  manners,  customs,  and  religions  of  the  dif- 
ferent tribes  which  people  its  surface. 

In  order  to  form  an  accurate  conception  of  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  objects  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  to  enter,  with 
intelligence,  on  the  study  of  this  subject,  it  is  requisite,  first 
of  all,  to  have  an  accurate  idea  of  its  figure  and  magnitude. 
For  a  long  series  of  ages,  it  was  supposed,  by  the  bulk  of 
mankind,  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  was  nearly  a  plane,  in- 
definitely extended,  and  bounded  on  all  sides  by  the  sky. 
Laclantius,  and  several  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church, 
strenuously  argued,  that  the  earth  was  extended  infinitely 
downwards,  and  established  upon  several  foundations.  The 
ancient  philosopher  Heraclitus  is  said  to  have  believed,  that 
the  earth  was  of  the  shape  of  a  skiff  or  canoe,  very  much  hol- 
lowed ;  and  the  philosopher  Leucippus  supposed  it  to  be  of 
the  form  of  a  cylinder  or  a  drum,  h  is  only  within  the  period 
of  the  last  three  hundred  years  that  the  true  figure  of  the  earth 
has-been  accurately  ascertained.  This  figure  is  now  found  to 
be  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  nearly  approaching  to  the  shape 
of  a  globe  or  sphere.  To  have  asserted  this  opinion  several 
ages  ago,  M'ould  have  been  considered  as  a  heresy  in  religion, 
and  would  have  subjected  its  abettors  to  the  anathemas  of  the 
church,  and  even  to  the  peril  of  their  lives.  Historians  inform 
us,  that  the  learned  Spigelius,  bishop  of  Upsal  in  Sweden,  suf- 
fered martrydom  at  the  stake,  in  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY. 


139 


antipodes ;  and  we  know  that,  for  asserting  the  motion  of  the 
earth,  the  celebrated  philosopher  Galileo  was  immured  in  a 
dungeon,  and  condemned  by  an  assembly  of  cardinals  to  all 
the  horrors  of  perpetual  imprisonment.  The  doctrin-e  he 
maintained,  and  which  is  now  universally  received,  by  every 
one  acquainted  with  the  subject,  was  declared  by  these  arro- 
gant ecclesiastics  to  be  "  a  proposition  absurd  in  its  very  nature, 
false  in  philosophy,  heretical  in  religion,  and  contrary  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures."  Such  are  some  of  the  horrible  and  perni- 
cious consequences  which  flow  from  ignorance  of  the  pheno- 
mena of  nature,  and  of  those  laws  by  which  the  Almighty 
governs  the  universe  he  has  formed ;  and  which  prove  it  to 
be  a  Christian  duty  for  every  rational  being  to  study  the  order 
and  economy  of  the  visible  world. 

That  the  earth  is  nearly  of  the  globular  figure  is  proved  by 
the  following  considerations  : — 1.  When  we  stand  on  the  sea- 
shore, while  the  sea  is  perfectly  calm,  we  perceive  that  the 
surface  of  the  water  is  not  quite  plane,  but  convex  or  rounded; 
and  if  we  are  on  one  side  of  an  arm  of  the  sea,  as  the  Frith  of 
Forth,  and  with  our  eyes  near  the  water,  look  toward  the  op- 
posite coast,  we  shall  plainly  see  the  water  elevated  between 
our  eyes  and  the  opposite  shore,  so  as  to  prevent  our  seeing 
the  land  near  the  edge  of  the  water.  The  same  experiment 
may  be  made  on  any  portion  of  still  water,  of  a  mile  or  two 
in  extent,  when  its  convexity  will  be  perceived  by  the  eye. 
A  little  boat,  for  instance,  may  be  perceived  by  a  man  who  is 
any  height  above  the  water,  but  if  he  stoops  down,  and  lays 
his  eye  near  the  surface,  he  will  find  that  the  fluid  appears  to 
rise,  and  intercept  the  view  of  the  boat.  2.  If  we  take  our 
station  on  the  sea-shore,  and  view  the  ships  leaving  the  coast, 
in  any  direction — as  they  retire  from  our  view,  we  may  per- 
ceive the  masts  and  rigging  of  the  vessels  when  the  hulls  are 
out  of  sight,  and,  as  it  were,  sunk  in  the  water.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  ship  is  approaching  the  shore,  the  first  part 
of  her  that  is  seen  is  the  topmast ;  as  she  approaches  nearer, 
the  sails  become  visible,  and,  last  of  all,  the  hull  comes  gradu- 
ally into  view.*  The  reason  of  s-uch  appearances  obviously 
is,  that  the  round  or  convex  surface  of  the  water  interposes 
between  our  eye  and  the  body  of  die  ship,  when  she  has 
reached  a  certain  distance,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  sails 

d  topmast,  from  their  great  elevation,  may  be  still  in  view. 


an 


*  In  order  to  make  such  observations  to  advantage,  the  observer's  eye 
should  be,  as  near  as  possible,  on  a  level  with  the  sea,  and  he  should  use  a 
telescope  to  enable  him  to  perceive  more  distinctly  the  upper  parts  of  the 
vessel. 


140  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

To  the  same  cause  it  is  owing,  that  the  higher  the  eye  is 
placed,  the  more  extensive  is  the  prospect ;  and  hence  it  is 
common  for  sailors  to  climb  to  the  tops  of  masts,  in  order  to 
discover  land  or  ships  at  a  distance.     The  contrary  of  all  this 
would  take  place,  if  the  earth  and  waters  were  an  extended 
plane.     When  a  ship  came  within  view,  the  hull  would  first 
make  its  appearance,  being  the  largest  object,  next  the  sails, 
and  last  of  all  the  topmast.     These  considerations,  which  hold 
true  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  prove  to  a  certainty,  that  the 
mass  of  the  ocean  is  of  a  globular  form ;  and  if  the  ocean  be 
a  portion  of  a  sphere,  it  follows,  that  the  land  also  is  of  the 
same  general  figure;  for  no  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  is 
elevated  above  four  or  five  miles  above  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
3.  That  the  earth  is  round  from  north  to  south,  appears  from 
the  following  circumstances  : — When  we  travel  a  considerable 
distance  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north,  a  number 
of  new  stars  successively  appear  in  the  heavens,  in  the  quarter 
to  which  we  are  advancing,  and  many  of  those  in  the  opposite 
quarter  gradually  disappear,  which  would  not  happen  if  the 
earth  were  a  plane,  in  that  direction.     4.  That  the  earth  is 
round,  from  east  to  west,  appears  from  actual  experiment ;  for 
many  navigators,  by  sailing  in  a  westerly  direction,  have  gone 
quite  round  it,  from  east  to  west;  and  were  it  not  for  the  frozen 
seas,  within  the  polar  regions,  which  interrupt  navigation  in 
those  directions,  it  would,  long  ere  now,  have  been  circum- 
navigated from  north  to  south.     5.  All  these  proofs  are  con- 
firmed and  illustrated  by  eclipses  of  the  moon,  which  present 
an  ocular  demonstration  of  the  earth's  rotundity.     An  eclipse 
of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  intervention  of  the  body  of  the 
earth  between  the  sun  and  the  moon ;   in  which   case,  the 
shadow  of  the  earth  falls  upon  the  moon.     This  shadow  is 
found  in  all  cases,  and  in  every  position  of  the  earth,  to  be  of 
a  circular  figure;   which    incontrovertibly  proves,   that  the 
whole  mass  of  land  and  water,  of  which  the  earth  is  composed, 
is  nearly  of  a  globular  form.     The  mountains  and  vales  which 
diversify  its  surface,  detract  little  or  nothing  from  its  globular 
shape  ;  for  they  bear  no  more  proportion  to  its  whole  bulk 
than  a  few  grains  of  sand  to  a  common  terrestrial  globe  ;  the 
highest  mountains  on   its   surface  being  little  more  than  the 
two-thousandih  part  of  its  diameter.     Some  of  the  mountains 
on  the  surface  of  the  moon  are  higher  than  those  on  the  earth, 
and  yet  that  body  appears,  both  to  the  naked  eye,  and  through 
telescopes,  of  a  spherical  figure. 

To  some  readers,  the  discovery  of  the  true  figure  of  the 
earth  may  appear  as  a  matter  of  very  trivial  importance  in 


GEOGRAPHY.  141 

religion.  1  hesitate  not,  however,  to  affirm,  that  it  constitutes 
a  most  important  flict  in  the  history  of  Divine  Providence. 
Had  not  this  discovery  been  made,  it  is  probable  that  the 
vast  continent  of  America  might  yet  have  remained  undis- 
covered ;  for  Columbus,  who  first  discovered  the  new  world, 
had  learned,  contrary  to  the  general  opinion  of  those  times, 
that  tlie  earth  was  of  a  spherical  figure  ;  and,  from  the  maps 
then  existing,  he  began  to  conjecture,  that  the  nearest  way  of 
sailing  to  the  East  Indies  would  be  to  sail  westward.  And, 
although  he  missed  the  object  of  his  research,  he  was  the 
means  of  laying  open  to  view  a  vast  and  unknown  region  of 
the  earth,  destined,  in  due  time,  to  receive  from  the  eastern 
world,  the  blessings  of  knowledge,  civilization,  and  reHgion. 
On  the  knowledge  of  the  spherical  figure  of  the  earth,  the 
art  of  navigation  in  a  great  measure  depends  ;  and  all  the 
voyages  of  discovery,  which  have  been  made  in  later  years, 
were  undertaken  in  consequence  of  the  knowledge  of  this 
fact.  Had  mankind  remained  unacquainted  with  this  disco- 
very, the  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  would  never  have 
been  attempted — vast  portions  of  the  habitable  world  would 
have  remained  unknown  and  nnexplored — no  regular  inter- 
course would  have  been  maintained  between  the  various  tribes 
of  the  human  race,  and  consequently,  the  blessings  of  divine 
revelation  could  never  have  been  communicated  to  the  greater 
part  of  the  Gentile  world.  Besides,  the  knowledge  of  the 
true  figure  and  magnitude  of  our  sublunary  world,  forms  the 
ground  work  of  all  the  sublime  discoveries  which  have  hitlier- 
to  been  made  in  the  regions  of  the  firmament.  For  its  dia- 
meter forms  the  base-line  of  those  triangles  by  which  the 
distances  and  magnitudes  of  the  celestial  globes  have  been 
determined,*  without  a  knowledge  of  the  extent  of  which, 

*  In  order  that  the  general  reader  may  understand  what  is  meant  by 
"the  diameter  of  the  earth  forming  the  base-line  of  those  triangles  by 
which  the  distances,  &c.,  of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  measured,"  it  may 
not  be  unnecessary  to  state  the  following  explanations. 

In  any  triangle,  as  A  B  C,  if  the  length  of  the  side  A  B  be  known,  and 
likewise  the  quantity  of  the  angles  at  A  and  B,  or  the  number  of  degrees 
or  minutes  they  subtend,  be  ascertained,  we  can  find  the  length  of  the 
sides  A  C  and  B  C.  If  A  B  represent  a  horizontal  plane,  100  feet  in 
extent,  and  C  B  a  tower  whose  height  we  wish  to  determine,  and  if,  with 
a  quadrant,  we  find  the  angle  at  A,  or  C  A  B,  to  be  43  degrees ;  then,  by 
an  easy  trigonometrical  process — Radius:  is  to  the  tangent  of  A,  43°:  : 
as  the  side  A  B,  100  feet  :  is  to  the  height  of  the  tower  C  B,  which,  in 
this  case,  will  be  found  to  be  93$  feet. 

It  is  on  tliis  general  principle  that  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of  the 
celestial  bodies  are  determined.  But,  in  all  cases  where  we  wish  to 
ascertain  the  dimensions  of  the  different  parts  of  a  triangle — -one  side,  at 
least,  must  be  given,  along  with  two  angles,  otherwise  the  length  of  the 


142 


CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 


the  important  results  which  have  been  deduced,  respecting  the 
system  of  the  universe,  could  not  have  been  ascertained,  and 
consequently,  our  views  of  the  grandeur  and  omnipotence  of 
the  Deity,  and  of  the  magniticence  and  extent  of  his  dominions, 
must  have  been  much  more  circumscribed  than  they  now  are. 
Such  is  the  intimate  connexion  that  subsists  between  every 
part  of  the  chain  of  Divine  dispensations,  that  if  any  one  link 
had  been  eidier  broken  or  dissolved,  the  state  of  things,  in  the 
moral  and  intellectual  world,  would  have  been  very  different 
from  what  it  now  is ;  and  the  plans  of  Providence,  for  ac- 
complishing the  renovation  and  improvement  of  mankind, 
would  have  been  either  partially  or  totally  frustrated. 

Fig.  13.  Fig.  14. 


different  sides  of  the  triangle  cannot  be  determined.  No\y,  in  measuring 
the  distance  of  a  heavenly  body,  such  as  the  moon,  the  diameter  or  semi- 
diameter  of  the  earth  is  the  kjioivn  side  of  the  triangle  by  which  such  a  dis- 
tance is  to  be  found.  In  fig.  14,  let  E  C  represent  the  earth,  M  the  mooii, 
and  A  B  a  portion  of  the  starry  firmament.  If  a  spectator  at  the  earth's 
surface  at  E  view  the  moon  in  the  horizon,  it  will  appear  in  the  line 
E  M,  among  the  stars  at  H.  But,  if  viewed  from  the  centre  of  the  earth 
at  C,  or  from  the  surface  at  D,  it  will  appear  in  the  line  C  D  M,  among 
the  stars  at  8.  TL'he  difference  of  position  in  which  the  moon  is  seen, 
as  viewed  from  the  surtace  of  the  earth  E,  and  the  centre  C,  is  called  the 
moon's  horizontal  parallax,  or  the  arc  S  H,  which  is  subtended  by  the 
angle  S  M  H,  which  is  equal  to  the  angle  E  M  C  In  determinmg  the 
distance  of  the  moon,  therefore,  we  must  first  find,  by  observation,  the 
horizontal  parallax,  or,  in  other  words,  the  angle  EMC;  and  the  side 
E  C,  or  the  semi-diameter  of  the  earth  being  known  to  be  about  four  thou- 
sand miles  in  extent,  forms  the  base-line  oi  the  triangle  E  M  C,and  hence 
the  other  sides  of  the  triangle  E  M  and  C  M,  or  the  distance  of  the  moon 
from  the  earth,  can  be  found  by  an  easy  calculation. 

From  what  has  been  now  stated,  it  will  appear  that,  were  we  ignorant 
of  the  figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth,  we  could  not  ascertain  the  dis- 
tance of  the  moon  or  any  other  celestial  body.  In  the  above  explanation  I 
have  merely  staled  the  jn-inriple,  on  which  astrononiers  proceed  in  mea- 
suring the  distances  ot  bodies  in  the  heavens,  without  descending  into 
details.  For  a  more  particular  explanation  and  illustration  of  this  subject, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  author's  work  entitled  "  Celestial  Scenery," 
chap,  vii.,  where  the  subject  is  pretty  fully  and  popularly  treated. 


GEOGRAPHY.  143 

With  regard  to  the  magnitude  of  the  earth — I  have  ah-eady 
stated  the  mode  by  which  we  may  acquire  the  most  accurate 
and  comprehensive  conception  of  this  particular,  in  the  course 
of  the  ilhistrations  which  were  given  of  the  omnipotence  of 
Deity, — (pp.  32 — 61.)  It  is  necessary  here  only  to  remark, 
that,  according  to  the  latest  computations,  the  diameter  of  t!ie 
-  earth  is  about  7930  miles,  and  its  circumference  24,912 
miles  ;  and  consequently,  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  and 
water  it  contains,  comprehends  an  area  of  197,552,160  miles. 
The  proportion  of  land  and  water  on  its  surface  cannot  be 
very  accurately  ascertained;  but  it  is  quite  evident,  from  an 
inspection  of  a  map  of  the  world,  that  the  water  occupies  at 
least  two-thirds  of  its  surface,  and  of  course,  the  land  cannot 
occupy  more  than  one-third.  Supposing  it  to  be  only  one- 
fourth  of  the  earth's  surface,  it  will  contain  49,388,040  square 
miles,  which  is  considerably  more  than  what  is  stated  in  most 
of  our  late  systems  of  geography;  in  some  of  which  the  ex- 
tent of  the  land  is  rated  at  thirty-nine  millions,  and  in 
others,  so  low  as  thirty  millions  of  square  miles — the  former 
of  which  statements  being  less  than  one-fifth,  and  the  latter 
less  than  one-sixth  of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  But  it  is 
quite  obvious,  that  the  extent  of  the  land  cannot  be  less  than 
one-fourth  the  area  of  the  globe,  and  must,  therefore,  com- 
prehend at  least  about  fifty  millions  of  square  miles,  and  if  a 
large  arctic  continent,  eleven  hundred  leagues  in  length,  exist 
around  the  north  pole,  as  some  French  philosophers  infer, 
from  Captain  Parry's  late  discoveries* — the  quantity  of  land 
on  the  terraqueous  globe  will  be  much  greater  than  wiiat  has 
now  been  stated. 

General  divisioxs  of  the  earth. — The  surface  of  the 
earth  is  divided,  from  north  to  south,  by  two  bands  of  earth, 
and  two  of  water.  The  first  band  of  earth  is  the  ancient  or 
eastern  continent, comprehending  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa;  the 
greatest  length  of  which  is  found  to  be  in  a  line  beginning  on 
the  east  point  of  the  northern  part  of  Tartary,  and  extending 
from  thence  to  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  measures 
about  ten  thousand  miles,  in  a  direction  nearly  from  north- 
east to  south-west ;  but  if  measured  according  to  the  meri- 
dians, or  from  north  to  south,  it  extends  only  seven  thousand 
five  hundred  miles,  from  the  northernmost  cape  in  Lapland  to 
the  cape  of  Good  Hope.  This  vast  body  of  land  contains 
about  thirty-six  millions  of  square  miles,  forming  nearly  one- 
fifth  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe.     The  other  band  of 

*See  Monthly  Magazine,  April,  1833,  p.  259. 


144  CHRISTIAxX  PHILOSOPHER. 

earth  is  what  is  commonly  called  the  new  continent,  which 
comprehends  North  and  South  America.  Its  greatest  length 
lies  in  aline  beginning  at  the  month  of  the  river  Plata,  pass- 
ing through  the  island  of  Jamaica,  and  terminating  beyond 
Hudson's  %ay;  and  it  measures  about  eight  thousand  miles. 
This  body  of  land  contains  about  fourteen  millions  of  square 
miles,  or  "somewhat  more  than  a  third  of  the  old  continent. 

It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  remark,  that  the  two  lines 
now  mentioned,  which  measure  the  greatest  length  of  the 
two  continents,  divide  them  into  two  equal  parts,  so  that  an 
equal  portion  of  land  lies  on  each  side  of  these  lines,  and 
that  each  of  the  lines  has  an  inclination  of  about  thirty  de- 
grees to  the  equator,  but  in  opposite  directions ;  that  of  the 
old  continent  extending  from  the  north-east  to  the  south- 
west- and  that  of  the  new  continent,  from  the  north-west  to 
the  south-east;  and  that  they  both  terminate  at  the  same 
degree  of  northern  latitude.  It  may  also  be  noticed,  that  the 
old  and  new  continents  are  almost  opposite  to  each  other,  and 
that  the  old  is  more  extensive  to  the  north  of  the  equator, 
and  the  new  more  extensive  to  the  south.  The  centre  of  the 
old  continent  is  in  the  17ih  degree  of  north  latitude,  and 
the  centre  of  the  new,  in  the  17th  degree  of  south  latitude; 
so  that  they  seem  to  be  made  to  counterbalance  each  other, 
in  order  to 'preserve  the  equability  of  the  diurnal  rotation  of 
the  earth.  There  is  also  a  singular  connexion  between  the 
two  continents,  namely,  that  if  they  Avere  divided  into  two 
parts,  all  four  would  be  surrounded  by  the  sea,  were  it  not  for 
the  two  small  necks  of  land  called  the  isthmuses  of  Suez  and 
Panama.* 

Between  the  two  continents  now  mentioned  lie  two  im- 
mense bands  of  water,  termed  the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic 
oceans,  whose  greatest  length  is  likewise  in  a  direction  from 
north  to  south. 

Besides  the  two  bands  of  earth  to  which  I  have  adverted, 
many  extensive  portions  of  land  are  dispersed  through  the 
ocean,  which  covers  the  remaining  part  of  the  earth's  surface: 
particularly  the  extensive  regions  of  New  Holland,  which  oc- 
cupy a  space  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  the 
Arctic  continent,  wiiich  probably  exists  within  the  north  polar 
regions,  and  which  some  French  writers  propose  to  designate 
by  the  name  of  Borcasia^  is,  in  all  probability,  of  equal  extent. 
H'here  are  also  the  extensive  islands  of  New  Guinea,  Borneo. 
Madagascar,   Sumatra,  Japan,  Great  Britain,    New  Zealand, 

*  See  BufTon's  Natural  History,  Vol.  i. 


GEOGRAPHY.  145 

Ceylon,  Iceland,  Cuba,  Java,  and  thousands  of  others,  of  dif- 
ferent dimensions,  scattered  through  the  Pacific,  the  Indian, 
and  the  Atlantic  oceans,  and  which  form  a  very  considerable 
portion  of  the  habitable  regions  of  the  globe. 

GexNERal  features  of  the  earth's  surface. — In  tak- 
ing a  general  survey  of  the  external  features  of  the  earth,  the 
most  prominent  objects  that  strike  the  eye  are  those  huge 
elevations  which  rise  above  the  level  of  its  general  surface, 
termed  hills  and  mountains.  These  are  distributed  in  various 
forms  and  sizes,  through  every  portion  of  the  continents  and 
islands ;  and,  running  into  immense  chains,  form  a  sort  of 
connecting  band  to  the  other  portions  of  the  earth's  surface. 
The  largest  mountains  are  generally  formed  into  immense 
chains,  which  extend,  in  nearly  the  same  direction,  for  several 
hundreds,  and  even  thousands  of  miles.  It  has  been  observed, 
by  some  philosophers,  that  the  most  lofty  mountains  form  two 
immense  ridges  or  belts,  which,  with  some  interruptions,  ex- 
tend around  the  whole  globe,  in  nearly  the  same  direction. 
One  of  these  ridges  lies  between  the  45th  and  55th  degrees 
of  north  latitude.  Beginning  on  the  western  shores  of  France 
and  Spain,  it  extends  eastward,  including  the  Alps  and  Pyre- 
nees, in  Europe,  the  Uralian  and  Altaic  mountains,  in  Asia — 
extending  from  thence  to  the  shores  of  KamtschatUa,  and,  after 
a  short  interruption  from  the  sea,  they  rise  again  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  America,  and  terminate  at  Canada,  near  the  eastern 
shore.  It  is  supposed  that  the  chain  is  continued  completely 
round  the  globe,  through  the  space  that  is  covered  by  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  and  that  the  Azores,  and  other  islands  in  that 
direction,  are  the  only  summits  that  are  visible,  till  we  come 
to  the  British  isles.  The  other  ridge  runs  along  the  southern 
hemisphere,  between  the  20th  and  30th  degrees  of  south  lati- 
tude, of  which  detached  portions  are  found  in  the  mountains 
of  Tucuman  and  of  Paraguay,  in  South  America ;  of  Mono- 
motapa  and  Caffraria,  in  Africa ;  in  New  Holland,  New  Cale- 
donia, the  New  Hebrides,  the  Friendly,  the  Society,  and  other 
islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean.  From  these  ridges  flow  a  variety 
of  ramifications,  in  both  hemispheres,  towards  the  equator  and 
the  poles,  which  altogether  present  a  magnificent  scenery, 
which  diversifies  and  enlivens  the  surface  of  our  globe. 

The  highest  mountains  in  the  v.-orld,  according  to  some  late 
accounts  published  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  So- 
ciety," are  the  Himalaya  chain,  north  of  Bengal,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Thibet.  The  highest  mountain  in  this  range  is  stated 
to  be  about  27,000  feet,  or  a  little  more  than  five  miles  in  per- 
pendicular height,  and  is  visible  at  the  distance  of  230  miles. 

13 


146  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

Nineteen  different  mountains  in  this  chain  are  stated  to  be 
above  four  miles  in  perpendicular  elevation.  Next  to  the  Hima- 
layas, are  the  Andes,  in  South  America,  which  extend  more 
than  4000  miles  in  length,  from  the  province  of  Quito  to  the 
straits  of  Magellan.  The  highest  summit  of  the  Andes  is 
Chimboracco,  which  is  said  to  be  20,600  feet,  or  nearly  four 
miles,  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  highest  mountains  in 
Europe  ate  the  Alps,  which  run  through  Switzerland  and  the 
north  of  Italy, — the  Pyrenees,  which  separate  France  from 
Spain,  and  the  Dofrafield,  which  divide  Norway  from  Sweden. 
The  most  elevated  ridges  of  Asia  are  Mount  Taurus,  Imaus, 
Caucasus,  Ararat,  the  Uralian,  the  Altaian,  and  the  mountains 
of  Japan, — in  Africa,  Mount  Atlas,  and  the  Mountains  of  the 
Moon.  Some  of  the  mountains  in  these  ranges  are  found  to 
contain  immense  caverns  or  perforations,  of  more  than  two 
miles  in  circumference,  reaching  from  their  summits  to  an  im- 
measurable depth  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  From  these 
dreadful  openings  are  frequently  thrown  up,  to  an  immense 
height,  torrents  of  fire  and  smoke,  rivers  of  melted  metals, 
clouds  of  ashes  and  cinders,  and  sometimes  red  hot  stones 
and  enormous  rocks,  to  the  distance  of  several  miles,  accom- 
panied with  thunders,  lightnings,  darkness,  and  horrid  subter- 
raneous sounds — producing  the  most  terrible  devastations 
through  all  the  surrounding  districts.  The  most  noted  moun- 
tains of  this  kind  in  Europe  are  mount  Hecla,  in  Iceland ; 
Etna,  in  Sicily;  and  Vesuvius,  near  the  city  of  Naples,  in 
Italy.  Numbers  of  volcanoes  are  also  to  be  found  in  South 
America,  in  Africa,  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  ocean,  and  in 
the  empire  of  Japan.* 

We,  who  live  in  Great  Britain,  where  the  highest  mountain 
is  little  more  than  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  perpendicular 
elevation,  can  form  no  adequate  idea  of  the  magnificence  and 
awful  sublimity  of  the  mountain  scenery  in  some  of  the  coun- 
tries now  mentioned;  especially  when  the  volcano  is  belching 
forth  its  flames  with  a  raging  noise,  and  spreading  terror  and 
desolation  around  its  base.  From  the  tops  of  the  lofty  ridges 
of  the  Andes,  the  most  grand  and  novel  scenes  sometimes 
burst  upon  the  eye  of  the  astonished  traveller.  He  beholds 
the  upper  surface  of  the  clouds  far  below  him,  covering  the 
subjacent  plain,  and  surrounding,  like  a  vast  sea,  the  foot  of 
the  mountain;  while  the  place  on  which  he  stands  appears 
like  an  island  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean.     He  sees  the  light- 

*  A  more  particular  description  of  the  phenomena  of  these  terrific  ob- 
jects will  be  found  in  chap.  iv.  sect.  2 


GEOGRAPHY. 


147 


nings  issuing  from  the  clouds,  and  hears  the  noise  of  the  tem- 
pest, and  the  thunders  rolling  far  beneath  his  feet,  while  all  is 
serene  around  him,  and  the  blue  vault  of  heaven  appears  with- 
out a  cloud.  At  other  times,  he  contemplates  the  most  sub- 
lime and  extensive  prospects— mountains  ranged  around  him, 
covered  with  eternal  snows,  and  surrounding,  like  a  vast  am- 
phitheatre, the  plains  below — rivers  winding  from  their  sources 
towards  the  ocean— cataracts  dashing  headlong  over  tremen- 
dous cliffs — enormous  rocks  detached  from  their  bases,  and 
rolling  down  the  declivity  of  the  mountains  with  a  noise  louder 
than  thunder — frightful  precipices  impending  over  his  head — 
unfathomable  caverns  yawning  from  below — and  the  distant 
volcano  sending  forth  its  bellowings,  with  its  top  enveloped  in 
fire  and  smoke.  Those  who  have  studied  nature  on  a  grand 
scale,  have  always  been  struck  with  admiration  and  astonish- 
ment, at  the  sublime  and  awful  exhibition  of  wonders  which 
mountainous  regions  exhibit;  and  perhaps  there  is  no  terrestrial 
scene  which  presents,  at  one  view,  so  many  objects  of  over- 
powering magnitude  and  grandeur,  and  which  inspires  the 
mind  with  so  impressive  an  idea  of  the  power  of  that  Almighty 
Being,  who  "  weigheth  the  mountains  in  scales,  and  taketh  up 
the  isles  as  a  very  little  thing." 

The  ocean, — The  ocean  surrounds  the  earth  on  all  sides, 
and  penetrates  into  the  interior  parts  of  different  countries, 
sometimes  by  large  openings,  and  frequently  by  small  straits. 
Could  the  eye  take  in  this  immense  sheet  of  waters  at  one 
view,  it  would  appear  the  most  august  object  under  the  vvhole 
heavens.  It  occupies  a  space  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  at 
least  three  times  greater  than  that  which  is  occupied  by  the 
land;  comprehending  an  extent  of  one  hundred  and  forty- 
eight  millions  of  square  miles.  Though  the  ocean,  strictly 
speaking,  is  but  one  immense  body  of  waters,  extending  in 
different  directions,  yet  different  names  have  been  appropriated 
to  different  portions  of  its  surface.  That  portion  of  its  waters 
which  rolls  between  the  western  coast  of  America,  and  the 
eastern  shores  of  Asia,  is  called  the  Pacific  ocean  :  and  that 
portion  which  separates  Europe  and  Africa  from  America,  the 
Atlantic  ocean.  Other  portions  are  termed  the  JVorthern, 
Southern^  and  Indian  oceans.  When  its  waters  penetrate 
into  the  land,  they  form  what  are  called  gulfs,  and  me- 
diterranean seas.  But  without  following  it  through  all  its 
windings  and  divisions,  I  shall  simply  state  a  few  general 
facts. 

With  regard  to  the  depth  of  this  body  of  water,  no  certain 
conclusions  have  yet  been  formed.     Beyond  a  certain  depth, 


l^S  CllRISTIA.'^   PHILOSOPHER. 

it  has  hitherto  been  found  unfathomable.  We  know,  in  gene- 
ral, that  the  depth  of  the  sea  increases  gradually  as  we  leave 
the  shore;  but  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  this  increase  of 
depth  continues  only  to  a  certain  distance.  The  numerous 
islands,  scattered  every  where  through  the  ocean,  demonstrate 
that  the  bott(MU  of  the  waters,  so  far  from  uniformly  sinking, 
sometimes  rises  into  lofty  mountains.  It  is  highly  probable, 
that  the  depth  of  the  sea  is  somewhat  in  proportion  to  the 
elevation  of  the  land ;  for  there  is  some  reason  to  conclude, 
that  the  present  bed  of  the  ocean  formed  the  inhabited  part  of 
the  ancient  world,  previous  to  the  general  deluge,  and  that  we 
are  now  occupying  the  bed  of  the  former  ocean  ;  and  if  so, 
its  greatest  depth  will  not  exceed  four  or  five  miles  ;  for  there 
is  no  mountain  that  rises  higher  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
But  the  sea  has  never  been  actually  sounded  to  a  greater  depth 
than  a  mile  and  sixty-six  feet.  Aloug  the  coast  its  depth  has 
always  been  found  proportioned  to  the  height  of  the  sliore ; 
where  the  coast  is  high  and  mountainous,  the  sea  that  washes 
it  is  deep;  but  where  the  coast  is  low,  the  water  is  shallow. 
To  calculate  the  quantiiy  of  loater  it  contains,  we  must  there- 
fore suj)pose  a  medium  depth.  If  we  reckon  its  average 
depth  at  two  miles,  it  will  contain  two  hundred  and  ninety- 
six  millions  of  cubical  miles  of  water.  We  shall  have  a  more 
specitic  idea  of  this  enormous  mass  of  water,  if  we  consider, 
that  it  is  sufficient  to  cover  the  whole  globe,  to  the  height  of 
more  than  eight  thousand  feet;  and  if  this  water  were  reduced 
to  one  spherical  mass,  it  would  form  a  globe  of  more  than 
eight  hundred  miles  in  diameter. 

With  regard  to  its  bottom — As  the  sea  covers  so  great  a 
portion  of  the  globe,  we  should,  no  doubt,  by  exploring  its 
interior  recesses,  discover  a  vast  number  of  interesting  objects. 
So  far  as  the  bed  of  the  ocean  has  been  explored,  it  is  found 
to  bear  a  great  resemblance  to  the  surface  of  the  dry  land  : 
being,  like  it,  full  of  plains,  caverns,  rocks,  and  mountains, 
some  of  which  are  abrupt  and  almost  perpendicular,  while 
others  rise  with  a  gentle  acclivity,  and  sometimes  tower  above 
the  water,  and  form  islands.  The  materials,  too,  which  com- 
pose the  bottom  of  the  sea,  are  the  same  which  form  the  bases 
of  the  dry  land.  It  also  resembles  the  land  in  another  re- 
markable particular; — many  fresh  springs,  and  even  rivers, 
rise  out  of  it;  an  instance  of  which  occurs  near  Goa,  on  the 
weastern  coast  of  Ilindostan,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
not  far  from  JVIarseilles.  The  sea  sometimes  assumes  different 
colours.  The  materials  which  compose  its  bottom,  cause  it 
to  reflect  different  hues  in  different  places  ;  and  its  appearance 


GEOGRAPHY.  149 

is  also  affected  by  the  winds  and  by  the  sun,  while  the  clouds 
that  pass  over  it  communicate  all  their  varied  and  fleeting 
colours.  When  the  sun  shines,  it  is  green;  when  he  gleams 
through  a  fog,  it  is  yellow  ;  near  the  poles,  it  is  black  ;  while 
in  the  torrid  zone,  its  colour  is  often  brown ;  and,  on  certain 
occasions,  it  assumes  a  luminous  appearance,  as  if  sparkling 
with  fire. 

The  ocean  has  three  kinds  of  motions.  The  first  is  that 
undulation  which  is  produced  by  the  wind,  and  which  is  en- 
tirely confined  to  its  surface.  It  has  been  ascertained  that 
this  motion  can  be  destroyed,  and  its  surface  rendered  smooth, 
by  throwing  oil  upon  its  waves.  The  second  motion  is  that 
continual  tendency  which  the  whole  water  in  the  sea  has  to- 
wards the  west,  which  is  greater  near  the  equator  than  to- 
ward the  poles.  It  begins  on  the  west  side  of  America,  where 
it  is  moderate ;  but  as  the  waters  advance  westward,  their 
motion  is  accelerated ;  and,  after  having  traversed  the  globe, 
they  return,  and  strike  with  great  violence  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  South  America.  Being  slopped  by  that  continent, 
they  rush,  with  impetuosity,  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  thence 
they  proceed  along  the  coast  of  North  America,  till  they  come 
to  the  south  side  of  the  great  bank  of  Newfoundland,  when 
they  turn  off  and  run  down  through  the  western  isles.  This 
motion  is  most  probably  owing  to  the  diurnal  revolution  of 
the  earth  on  its  axis,  which  is  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the 
motion  of  the  sea.  The  third  motion  of  the  sea  is  the  fi^e, 
which  is  a  regular  swell  of  the  ocean  every  twelve  and  a  half 
hours.  This  motion  is  now  ascertained  to  be  owing  to  the 
attractive  influence  of  the  moon,  and  also  partly  to  that 
of  the  sun.  There  is  always  a  flux  and  reflux  at  the  same 
time,  in  two  parts  of  the  globe,  and  these  are  opposite  to 
each  other;  so  that  when  our  antipodes  have  high  water, 
we  have  the  same.  When  the  attractive  powers  of  the  sun 
and  moon  act  in  the  same  direction,  which  happens  at  the 
time  of  new  and  full  moon,  we  have  the  highest,  or  spring 
tides ;  but  when  their  attraction  is  opposed  to  each  other, 
vvhich  happens  at  the  quarters,  we  have  the  lowest  or  neap 
tides. 

Such  is  the  ocean,  a  most  stupendous  scene  of  Omni- 
potence, which  forms  the  most  magnificent  feature  of  the  globe 
we  inhabit.  When  we  stand  on  the  sea-shore,  and  cast  our 
eyes  over  the  expanse  of  its  waters,  till  the  sky  and  the  waves 
seem  to  mingle,  all  that  the  eye  can  take  in  at  one  survey,  is 
but  an  inconsiderable  speck.,  less  than  the  hundred-thousandth 
part  of  the  whole  of  this  vast  abyss.     If  every  drop  of  water 

13* 


150  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

can  be  divided  into  26  millions  of  distinct  parts,  as  some  phi- 
losophers have  demonstrated,*  what  an  immense  assemblage 
of  watery  particles  must  be  contained  in  the  unfathomable 
caverns  of  the  ocean!  Here  the  powers  of  calculation  are 
completely  set  at  defiance  ;  and  an  image  of  infinity,  immen- 
sity, and  endless  duration,  is  presented  to  the  mind.  This 
mighty  expanse  of  waters  is  the  grand  reservoir  of  nature, 
and  the  source  of  evaporation,  which  enriches  the  earth  with 
fertility  and  verdure.  Every  cloud  which  floats  in  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  every  fountain,  and  rivulet,  and  flowing  stream,  are 
indebted  to  this  inexhaustible  source  for  those  watery  trea- 
sures which  they  distribute  through  every  region  of  the  land. 
In  fine,  whether  we  consider  the  ocean  as  rearing  its  tremen- 
dous billows  in  the  midst  of  the  tempest,  or  as  stretched  out 
into  a  smooth  expanse — whether  we  consider  its  immeasura- 
ble extent,  its  mighty  movements,  or  the  innumerable  beings 
Avhich  glide  through  its  rolling  waves — we  cannot  but  be 
struck  with  astonishment  at  the  grandeur  of  that  Omnipotent 
Being  who  holds  its  waters  in  the  "hollow  of  his  hand,"  and 
who  has  said  to  its  foaming  surges,  "Hitherto  shall  thou 
come,  and  no  farther  ;  and  here  shall  thy  proud  waves  be 
stayed." 

Rivers — The  next  feature  of  the  earth's  surface  which  may 
be  noticed  is  the  rivers  with  which  it  is  indented  in  every 
direction.  These  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  seem  to 
form  as  essential  a  part  in  the  constitution  of  our  globe,  as  the 
mountains  from  which  they  flow,  and  as  the  ocean  to  which 
they  direct  their  course.  It  is  reckoned,  that  in  the  old  con- 
tinent, there  are  only  about  430  rivers,  which  fall  directly  into 
the  ocean,  or  into  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  seas ;  but 
in  the  new  continent,  there  are  only  about  145  rivers  known, 
which  fall  directly  into  the  sea.  In  this  enumeration,  however, 
only  the  great  rivers  are  included,  such  as  the  Thames,  the 
Danube,  the  Wolga,  and  the  Rhone.  Besides  these,  there  are 
many  thousands  of  streams  of  smaller  dimensions,  wliich, 
rising  from  the  mountains,  wind  in  every  direction,  till  they 
fall  into  the  large  rivers,  or  are  carried  into  tlie  ocean.  The 
largest  rivers  in  Europe  are — the  Wolga,  which,  rising  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Russia,  runs  a  course  of  1700  miles,  till  it 
falls  into  the  Caspian  sea — the  Danube,  whose  course  is  1300 
miles,  from  the  mountains  in  Switzerland  to  the  Black  sea — 
and  the  Don,  which  runs  a  course  of  1200  miles.     The  great- 

*  The  (leinonstration  of  tliis  proposiiion  may  be  seen  in  Nieuwcntyt's 
Religious  Fhilosopher,  vol.  iii>  p.  852. 


GEOGRAPHY, 


151 


est  rivers  in  Asia  are — the  Hoanho,  in  China,  whose  course 
is  2400  miles — the  Boorhampooter,  the  Euphrates,  and  the 
Ganges.  The  h-)ngest  river  in  Africa  is  the  Nile,  the  course 
of  which  is  estimated  at  2000  miles,  hi  the  continent  of 
America,  the  rivers  appear  to  be  formed  on  the  grandest  scale, 
both  as  to  the  length  of  their  course  and  the  vast  body  of 
waters  which  they  pour  into  the  ocean.  The  Amazons,  the 
largest  river  in  the  world,  runs  a  course  of  above  3000  miles 
across  the  continent  of  South  America,  till  it  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  where  it  discharges  a  body  of  waters  150  miles 
in  breadth.  Next  to  this  is  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  which  is 
more  than  2400  miles  from  its  mouth  through  the  lake  of 
Ontario  to  the  lake  Alempigo  and  the  Assiniboils  ;  and  the 
rivers  La  Plata  and  Mississippi,  each  of  whose  courses  is  not 
less  than  2000  miles. 

When  we  consider  the  number  and  the  magnitude  of  these 
majestic  streams,  it  is  evident,  that  an  enormous  mass  of  water 
is  continually  pouring  into  the  ocean  from  every  direction. 
From  observations  which  have  been  made  on  the  river  Po, 
which  runs  through  Lombardy,  and  waters  a  tract  of  land 
380  miles  long  and  120  broad,  it  is  found,  that  it  moves  at  the 
rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  is  1000  feet  broad  and  10  feet  in 
depth,  and  consequently,  supplies  the  sea  with  5068  millions 
of  cubical  feet  of  water  in  a  day,  or  a  cubical  mile  in  29  days. 
On  the  supposition  that  the  quantity  of  water  which  the  sea 
receives  from  the  great  rivers  in  all  countries,  is  proportional 
to  the  extent  and  surface  of  these  countries,  it  will  follow, 
that  the  quantity  of  waters  carried  to  the  sea  by  all  the  other 
rivers  on  the  globe,  is  1083  times  greater  than  that  furnished 
by  the  Po,  (supposing  the  land,  as  formerly  stated,  to  contain 
about  49  millions  of  square  miles,)  and  will  supply  the  ocean 
with  13,630  cubical  miles  of  water  in  a  year.  Now  reckoning 
the  ocean,  as  formerly,  to  contain  296  millions  of  cubical 
miles  of  water,  this  last  number  divided  by  the  former,  will 
give  a  quotient  of  21,716.  Hence  it  appears,  that,  were  the 
ocean  completely  drained  of  its  waters,  it  would  require  more 
than  hcenty  thousand  years*  before  its  caverns  could  be  again 
completely  filled  by  all  the  rivers  in  the  world  running  into 
it,  at  their  present  rate. 

Here  two  questions  will  naturally  occur — Whence  do  the 

*  Buffon  makes  this  result  to  be  812  years,  in  which  he  is  followed  by 
Goldsmith,  and  most  subsequent  writers  ;  but  he  proceeds  on  the  false 
assumption,  that  the  ocean  covers  only  half  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and 
that  it  contains  only  85  millions  of  square  miles,  and  he  estimates  the 
average  depth  of  the  ocean  to  be  only  440  yards,  or  one  fourth  of  a  mile. 


152  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

rivers  receive  so  constant  a  supply  of  water  ?  and,  Why  has 
not  the  ocean  long  ago  overflowed  the  world,  since  so  prodi- 
gious a  mass  of  water  is  continually  flowing  into  its  abyss  ? 
This  was  a  difficulty  which  long  puzzled  philosophers;  but  it 
is  now  satisfactorily  solved,  from  a  consideration  of  the  effects 
of  evaporation.  By  the  heat  of  the  sun,  the  particles  of  water 
are  drawn  up  into  the  atmosphere,  from  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  and  float  in  the  air  in  the  form  of  clouds  or  vapour. 
These  vapours  are  carried,  by  the  winds,  over  the  surface  of 
the  land,  and  are  again  condensed  into  water  on  the  tops  and 
the  sides  of  the  mountains,  which,  gliding  down  into  their 
crevices  and  caverns,  at  length  break  out  into  springs,  a  num- 
ber of  which  meeting  in  one  common  valley,  become  a  river; 
and  many  of  these  united  together,  at  length  form  such  streams 
as  the  Tay,  the  Thames,  the  Danube,  and  the  Rhine.  That 
evaporation  is  sufficient  to  acconut  for  this  effect,  has  been 
demonstrated  by  many  experiments  and  calculations.  It  is 
found,  that  from  the  surface  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  which 
contains  762,000  square  miles,  there  are  drawn  up  into  the 
air  every  day,  by  evaporation,  5280  millions  of  tons  of  water, 
while  the  rivers  which  flow  into  it  yield  only  1827  millions 
of  tons,  in  the  same  time;  so  that  there  is  raised  in  vapour 
from  the  Mediterranean  nearly  three  times  the  quantity  of 
water  which  is  poured  into  it  by  all  its  rivers.  One-third  of 
this  falls  into  the  sea  before  it  reaches  the  land ;  another  part 
falls  on  the  low  lands,  for  the  nourishment  of  plants  ;  and  the 
other  third  part  is  quite  sufficient  to  supply  the  sources  of  all 
the  rivers  which  run  into  the  sea.  This  is  in  full  conformity 
to  what  was  long  ago  stated  by  an  inspired  naturalist:  "All 
the  rivers  run  into  the  sea,  and  yet  the  sea  is  not  full ;  unto 
the  place  from  whence  the  rivers  came,  thither  do  they  return 
again ;"  but,  before  they  regain  their  former  place  they  make 
a  circuit  over  our  heads  through  the  regions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. 

Such  are  the  varied  movements  and  transformations  which 
are  incessantly  going  on  in  the  rivers,  the  ocean,  and  the 
atmosphere,  in  order  to  preserve  the  balance  of  nature,  and  to 
supply  the  necessities  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  tribes ;  all 
under  the  agency  and  direction  of  Him  who  "formed  the  sea 
and  the  dry  land,"  and  who  has  arranged  all  things  in  num- 
ber, weight,  and  measure,  to  subserve  the  purposes  of  his  will. 

Rivers  serve  many  important  purposes  in  the  economy  of 
our  globe.  They  carry  off  thp  redundant  waters  which  fall 
in  rains,  or  which  ooze  from  the  springs,  which  might  other- 
wise settle  into  stagnant  pools ;  they  supply  to  the  seas  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  153 

loss  of  waters  occasioned  by  their  daily  evaporation  ;  they 
cool  the  air,  and  give  it  a  gentle  circulation;  they  fertilize  the 
countries  through  which  they  flow;  their  waters  afford  a 
wholesome  drink,  and  the  fishes  they  contain  a  delicious  food 
for  the  nourishment  of  man ;  they  facilitate  commerce,  by 
conveying  the  productions  of  nature  and  art  from  the  inland 
countries  to  the  sea;  they  form  mechanical  powers  for  driv- 
ing machinery  of  different  kinds ;  they  enliven  and  diversify 
the  scenery  of  the  countries  through  which  they  pass  ;  and  the 
cataracts  which  they  frequently  form  among  the  mountains, 
present  us  with  scenes  the  most  picturesque  and  sublime ;  so 
that  every  part  of  the  constitution  of  nature  is  rendered  sub- 
servient both  to  utility  and  to  pleasure. 

Waiving  the  consideration  of  other  particulars^  I  shall 
simply  state  some  of  the  artificial  divisions  of  the  earth,  and 
two  or  three  facts  respecting  its  inhabitants. 

The  LAND  has  generally  been  divided  into  four  parts, 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  to  which  has  been  lately 
added  the  division  called  Australasia,  which  comprehends, 
New  Holland,  New  Guinea,  New  Zealand,  Van  Dieman's 
Land,  and  several  other  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean. 

Europe  comprehends  the  following  countries — Norwny, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Russia,  Prussia,  Germany,  Austria,  Tur- 
key, Italy,  Switzerland,  France,  Holland,  Belgium,  or  the 
Netherlands,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
together  with  the  islands  of  Sicily,  Malta,  Candia,  Corsica, 
Sardinia,  Majorca,  Minorca,  Ivica,  Zealand,  Funen,  Gothland, , 
Iceland,  and  several  others  of  smaller  note. 

Europe  is  the  smallest  of  the  five  grand  divisions  of  the 
globe.  Its  greatest  extent  is  from  north-east  to  south-west, 
namely,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Kara,  in  N.  Lat.  68°  40'  to 
the  rock  of  Lisbon,  in  N.  Lat.  38°  45',  which  is  computed  at 
three  thousand  four  hundred  British  miles.  Its  greatest 
breadth,  from  Cape  Matapan,  in  the  Morea,  to  the  North  Cape 
of  Norway,  is  computed  at  2,350  miles.  Its  superficial  con- 
tents have  been  computed  at  3,650,000  square  miles,  or 
2,336,000,000  English  acres,  reckoning  640  to  the  square 
mile.  Its  form  is  singularly  broken  and  varied,  being  split 
into  many  distinct  portions,  peninsulas  and  large  islands  with  ex- 
tended and  winding  coasts,  which  arises  chiefly  from  the  num- 
ber of  its  inland  seas,  of  which  the  Mediterranean,  the  Baltic, 
and  the  Black  sea,  are  the  most  important.  Its  rivers  are 
numerous,  the  largest  of  which  are  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the 
Wolga  and  the  Danube.  Its  fnoimtaiiis  do  not  reach  that 
stupendous  height  nor  extend   in  such  unbroken  chains  as 


154  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

those  of  Asia  and  America.  Its  highest  ranges  are  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees,  the  Appenines  in  Italy,  and  the  Dofraiield,  in 
Norway.  Its  lakes^  though  numerous,  are  comparatively 
small ;  those  of  Ladoga  and  Onega  alone  being  of  any  com- 
mercial importance.  Its  soil  is  distinguished  for  its  valuable 
productions  :  Grain  of  different  kinds  is  raised  over  its  whole 
surface,  except  the  extreme  north — wines  throughout  all  its 
southern  region,  and  it  is  equally  productive  in  hemp,  flax, 
wool  and  silk.  Its  northern  forests  produce  some  of  the 
finest  timber  in  the  world ;  and  the  iron  of  Europe  surpasses 
that  of  any  other  country.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is 
carried  on  with  great  diligence,  and  in  point  of  science,  skill, 
and  the  extent  of  capital  employed  upon  it,  and  upon  every 
branch  of  commerce  and  manufacture,  it  stands  unrivalled 
among  the  other  countries  of  the  globe.  Its  commerce  is  on 
a  very  extensive  scale,  and  in  manufacturing  skill  it  has  sur- 
passed every  other  country,  both  in  the  variety  and  the  cheapness 
of  its  productions.  European  vessels,  conveying  articles  and 
manufactures  of  all  descriptions,  are  to  be  found  at  the  utmost 
bounds  of  Asia  and  America,  in  the  snowy  regions  of  the 
poles,  and  crowding  the  ports  of  New  Holland,  Van  Dieman's 
j/i!id.  New  Zealand,  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
oceans. 

The  'population  of  Europe  is  now  reckoned  to  amount  to 
about  200  millions.  Its  inhabitants  are  divided  chiefly  into 
three  races,  the  Sclavonic,  Teutonic,  and  Romish  races.  The 
Sclavonic  consists  of  about  25  millions  of  Russians,  10  mil- 
lions of  Poles,  and  10  millions  in  other  adjacent  countries. 
The  Teutonic  race,  which  occupy  the  greater  part  of  Scandi- 
navia, the  Netherlands,  and  Great  Britain,  may  be  estimated  at 
50  millions.  The  Rojnish  race  includes  the  inhabitants  of 
Southern  Europe,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  &c.,  and  may  be  esti- 
mated about  80  millions.  The  Celts  in  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Wales,  and  Spain,  are  the  remains  of  the  most  ancient  inhabi- 
tants of  Western  Europe,  and  may  amount  to  6  millions.  The 
Greeks  in  Europe  amount  to  2  millions,  and  the  Jews  through- 
out all  Europe  to  about  2  millions.  The  Tartars,  Turks, 
Hungarians,  and  Gypsies,  which  are  of  Asiatic  origin,  amount 
altogether  to  6  or  7  mfllions.  Though  this  division  of  the 
earth  is  least  in  point  of  size — being  only  the  one-sixteenth 
part  of  the  terraqueous  globe — it  is  yet  by  far  the  greatest  as 
to  moral,  political,  and  commercial  importance.  Its  surface  is 
in  general  more  crowded  with  inhabitants  than  most  other 
countries  (Cliina  alone  excepted)  more  improved  by  cultiva- 
tion, more  enriched  by  industry  and  commerce — embellished 


GEOGRAPHY.  155 

with  mighty  cities,  and  splendid  works  of  art,  and  illumined 
with  the  reflections  of  genius.  Here  we  behold  mind  assert- 
ing its  supremacy  over  matter,  and  man,  the  lord  of  this  lower 
world,  pursuing  the  high  destiny  originally  assigned  him  "  to 
replenish  the  earth  and  subdue  it."  In  learning,  arts,  and 
sciences,  Europe  has  far  surpassed  every  other  portion  of  the 
globe;  and  by  the  invention  of  printing,  knowledge  of  every 
description  is  now  rapidly  diffused,  and  promoting  the  moral 
and  intellectual  improvement  of  its  population. 

Asia^  the  largest  and  most  populous  division  of  the  ancient 
continent,  contains  the  empires  of  China  and  Japan,  Chinese 
Tartary,  Tibet,  Hindostan,  or  British  India,  the  Birman  Em- 
pire, Persia,  Arabia,  Turkey  in  Asia,  Siberia,  Independent  Tar- 
tary, and  a  variety  of  territories  inhabited  by  tribes  with  which 
we*  are  very  imperfectly  acquainted  ;  together  with  the  im- 
mense islands  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  Ceylon,  Segalien,the 
Philippines,  and  thousands  of  others  of  smaller  dimensions. 
The  immense  expanse  of  Asia  presents  every  possible  variety 
of  soil  and  climate,  as  it  extends  from  the  confines  of  the  polar 
regions  to  the  tropical  climes.  Its  grandest  feature  is  a  chain 
of  mountains  crossing  it  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Eastern 
seas,  of  which  Taurus,  Caucasus,  and  the  Himalaya  are  the 
portions  best  known.  One  leading  feature  of  middle  Asia 
consists  in  large  lakes  or  inland  seas,  salt  like  the  ocean,  and 
having  no  outlets  ;  of  which  the  Caspian,  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and 
Baikal,  are  the  largest.  It  contains  many  rivers  of  great  mag- 
nitude. The  Euphrates,  the  Ganges,  and  Hoanho,  and  the 
Amur,  in  the  length  of  their  course,  yield  only  to  the  rivers 
of  the  new  world.  This  quarter  of  the  globe  is  reckoned  to 
be  7500  miles  in  length,  from  east  to  west,  and  about  5000 
miles  in  breadth,  from  south  to  north,  and  contains  about  16 
millions  of  square  miles,  being  more  than  four  times  larger 
than  Europe.  Its  inhabitants  have  been  computed  by  some 
writers  to  amount  to  580  millions.  It  was  in  Asia  where  the 
human  race  was  first  planted  ;  it  became  the  nursery  of  the 
world  after  the  universal  deluge,  and  it  was  the  scene  in  which 
the  most  memorable  transactions  recorded  in  the  sacred  his- 
tory took  place.  But  its  inhabitants  are  now  immersed  in 
Mahometan  and  Pagan  darkness ;  and  the  Christian  religion, 
except  in  a  few  insulated  spots,  is  almost  unknown  among  its 
vast  population.  It  is  the  richest  and  most  fruitful  part  of  the 
world,  and  produces  cotton,  silks,  spices,  tea,  cofliee,  gold, 
silver,  pearls,  diamonds,  and  precious  stones  :  but  despotism, 
in  its  worst  forms,  reigns  uncontrolled  over  every  part  of  this 
immense  region. 


15(5  eilRtSTlAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

Africa  comprehends  the  following  kingdoms — -Morocco, 
Algiers,  Tunis,   Tripoli,   Egypt,  Zaara,  Negroland,  Guinea, 
JNTuhia,  Abyssinia,  Caffraria,  Dahomy,  Benin,  Congo,  Angola, 
and  various  other  territories.    By  far  the  greater  part  of  ^Africa 
remains  hitherto  unexplored,  and  consequently,  we  are  pos- 
sessed of  a  very  slender  portion  of  information  respecting  the 
numerous  tribes  that  may  inhabit  it.    This  quarter  of  the  world, 
which  once  contained  several  flourishing  kingdoms  and  states, 
is  now  reduced  to  a  general  state  of  barbarism.     That  most 
abominable  traffic,  the  slave  trade,  is  carried  on  to  an  unlimited 
extent  on  its  western  coasts,  by  a  set  of  European  ruffians, 
whose  villanies  are  a  disgrace  to  human  nature.     It  is  to  be 
hoped  this  traffic  will,  ere  long,  be  extirpated  by  the  effirrts 
now  making  by  European  nations,  and  by  the  plans  which  are 
now  concerting  for  promoting  the  religious,  moral,  and  com- 
mercial improvement  of  this  country.     The  Christian  religion 
has  lately  been  introduced  into  its  southern  regions,  in  the 
districts  adjacent  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  the  labours 
of  missionaries,  of  different  denominations,  appear,  in  nume- 
rous  instances,  to   have  been  crowned  with  remarkable  suc- 
cess.*    A  colony  of  blacks,  formerly  slaves  in  America,  has 
lately  been  established  on   the  western  coast,  a  little  to  the 
south  of  Sierra  Leone,  wdiich  goes  by  the  name  of  Liberia. 
All  the  affairs  of  this  little  state  are  conducted  by  emancipated 
negroes,  and  particular  attention  is  paid  to  the  literary  and  re- 
ligious instruction  of  the  colonists.     Some  of  the  newspapers 
we  have  seen,  published  by  the  settlers  in  this  colony,  indicate 
a  considerable  degree  of  talent  and  information;  and  there  is 
a  prospect  that  the  improvements  going  forward  in  Liberia 
will,  ere  long,  produce  a  beneficial  influence  on  those  tribes 
Avho  occupy  the  adjacent  territories,  and  have  a  tendency  to 
lessen  the  traffic  in  slaves.     The  greatest  breadth  of  Africa  is 
about  4790  miles,  and  its  length  from  north  to  south  about 
5000  miles.     Its  most  striking  features  are  those  immense 
deserts,  near  its  northern  parts,  which  comprise  nearly  one 
third  of  its  surflice.    The  deserts  of  Zaara  are  1500  miles  long, 
and  eight  hundred  broad. 

America  is  divided  into  North  and  South.  It  remained  un- 
known to  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  hemisphere  till  the 
year  1492,  when  it  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  who  first 
landed  on  Guanahani,  or  Cat  island^  one  of  the  Bahama  isles. 
North  America  comprehends  the  following  countries:  the 
United  States,  New  and  Old  Mexico,  Upper  and  Lower  Canada, 

*  See  Moffat's  interesting  work,  entitled,  "  Missionary  Scenes  and  La- 
bours in  Suuih«rn  Africa.''  1842. 


GEOGRAPHY,  157 

Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  Labrador.  South  America 
comprehends  the  immense  districts  called  Terra  Firma,  Peru, 
Guiana,  Amazonia,  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Chili,  and  Patagonia. 
Between  N.  and  S.  America,  lie  the  islands  of  Cuba,  Si.  Do- 
mingo, Jamaica,  and  Porto  Rico,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
West,  hidies.  America  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic, 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic 
ocean.  South  America  comprises  a  surface  of  six  and  a  half 
millions  of  square  miles,  its  length  being  4500  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  3200  miles.  North  America,  exclusive  of  the 
islands  that  surround  it,  contains  about  nine  millions  of  square 
miles.  It  has  been  divided  into  live  physical  regions  :  1.  The 
table  land  of  Mexico,  2.  The  slope  lying  between  the  Rocky 
mountains  and  the  Pacific  ocean,  3.  The  great  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  4.  The  eastern  declivity  of  the  Allegheny  moun- 
tains, 5.  The  great  northern  plain  beyond  50°  north  latitude, 
a  bleak  and  barren  waste,  covered  with  lakes.  Besides  these, 
there  are  connected  with  America,  the  Bahama  and  Caribbee 
islands,  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  Tobago,  Trinidad.  Terra 
del  Fuego,  &c.  America  is  distinguished  by  its  numerous 
and  extensive  lakes,  which  resemble  large  inland  seas.  Its 
rivers,  also,  form  one  of  its  grand  and  distinguishing  features, 
being  the  largest  on  the  globe.  It  is  likewise  diversified  with 
lofty  and  extensive  ranges  of  mountains.  When  first  disco- 
vered, it  was  almost  wholly  covered  with  immense  forests, 
and  thinly  peopled  with  a  number  of  savage  tribes.  Its  mingled 
population  of  Aborigines  and  Europeans  is  now  making  rapid 
advances  in  knowledge,  civilisation,  and  commerce. 

The  United  States^  which  extend  from  the  20th  to  the  50th 
degree  of  north  latitude,  form  the  greatest  and  most  influential 
power  that  exists  in  this  continent,  and  possess  a  terri^'^ry 
of  vast  extent — stretching  from  the  great  lakes  to  the  Giili  of 
Mexico,  a  breadth  of  about  1600  miles;  and  from  the  Atluniic 
to  the  Pacific  ocean,  a  length  of  2500  miles,  including  a  sur- 
face of  2,300,000  square  miles.  The  population  of  those 
slates  now  amounts  to  about  15  millions — an  astonishing 
number,  when  we  consider  that  only  a  little  more  than  200 
years  ago  these  territories  were  little  else  than  a  boundless 
wilderness,  peopled  by  a  few  tribes  of  savages.  Were  they 
brought  to  a  cultivated  state,  they  would  be  sufficient  to  sub- 
sist a  population  of  three  or  four  hundred  millions.  These 
states  have  been  peopled  from  different  European  nations,  par- 
ticularly from  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  the  English  lan- 
guage prevails  over  most  of  the  26  states.  The  form  of  go- 
vernment is  that  of  a  republic;  and  in  religion  they  have 

14 


158  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

adopted  the  system  of  cutting  off  all  connexion  between 
church  and  stale.  Every  sectary  chooses  its  own  pastor  and 
provides  entirely  for  his  support.  Literature  and  science  have 
not  yet  reached  tlie  high  elevation  they  have  attained  in  Eu- 
rope; but  numerous  colleges,  highly  respectable,  and  literary 
institutions  of  various  descriptions  have  been  established, — 
some  of  which  enjoy  a  high  reputation.  The  education  of 
the  mass  of  the  community  forms  a  prominent  object  of  atten- 
tion in  each  state ;  and  the  benefits  of  a  good  common  edu- 
cation are  perhaps  more  generally  diffused  than  in  any  other 
country  in  the  world.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the 
system  of  slavery  still  prevails  in  the  southern  states,  notwith- 
standing all  the  remonstrances  which  hgve  been  made  against 
it  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  states  and  by  other  na- 
tions. But  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  good  sense  of  the  in- 
habitants of  these  states  "will,  ere  long,  excite  them  to  arouse 
themselves  to  remove  that  blot  upon  their  national  character, 
by  which  their  institutions  have  been  so  long  and  so  deeply 
disgraced. 

Australasia  is  the  name  given  to  a  number  of  large  islands 
occupying  a  portion  of  the  hidian  or  Southern  Pacific  ocean, 
between  the  10th  and  45th  degrees  of  south  latitude.  The 
chief  island  in  the  group  is  New  Holland  or  Australia^  the 
largest  island  in  the  world,  being  about  2400  miles  in  length, 
from  east  to  west,  and  1800  from  north  to  south,  comprising 
an  area  of  nearly  three  millions  of  square  miles.  The 
country  is  generally  flat,  with  the  exception  of  some  moun- 
tain ranges,  and  in  many  places  the  inclination  is  inwards,  in- 
stead of  outwards  to  the  sea,  so  that  the  mountains  and 
elevated  land  form  a  ridge  nearly  round  it.  The  great  Kan- 
garoo is  the  largest  quadruped  in  this  country,  and  the  total 
absence  of  such  animals  as  lions,  tigers,  deer,  oxen,  horses, 
and  bears,  is  the  most  striking  feature  in  this  region.  The 
native  human  beings  are  of  the  Malay  race,  and  exist  in  tlie 
lowest  state  of  degradation  and  barbarism.  Three  British 
settlements  have  been  formed  in  New  Holland  :  1.  JYew  Smith 
Wa/es^  which  stretches  about  1400  miles  along  its  eastern 
coast,  and  some  hundreds  of  miles  inland.  This  is  the  oldest 
and  most  populous  of  the  Australian  colonies,  and  was  selected 
at  first  for  the  transportation  of  convicts,  though  voluntary 
emigrants,  of  late  years,  have  emigrated  thither  in  considerable 
numbers.  It  lies  at  the  distance  of  about  16,000  miles  from 
Great  Britain  ;  but  the  voyage  to  it  is  generally  accomplished 
in  from  100  to  120  days.  Its  capital,  Sydney,  pleasantly 
situated  on  a  fine  bay,  called  Port  Jackson,  is  now  considered 


GEOGRAPHY.  159 

as  containing  a  population  of  25,000.  The  whole  population 
of  this  colony,  free  and  convict,  is  calculated  to  be  about 
110,000,  and  it  is  rapidly  increasing.  2.  Western  Australia,  or 
the  Swan-river  settlement.,  which  is  not  so  populous,  nor  does 
it  appear  so  prosperous  as  the  other  settlements.  3.  South 
Australia — which  lies  on  the  soutliern  shore.  I«  this  colony 
slavery  is  not  permitted  to  exist,  nor  are  any  convicts  allowed 
to  be  sent  to  it  from  England.  Here  learning  and  religion  are 
greatly  encouraged,  and  every  mean  has  been  employed  by 
the  directors  of  the  South  Australian  Company  to  render  the 
settlers,  as  far  as  possible,  a  moral  and  religious  population. 
The  capital  is  Jidelaide.,  which  already  contains  about  7000 
inhabitants,  although  it  is  only  about  five  years  since  the 
colony  was  established.  Each  denomination  of  Christians 
supports  its  own  ministers  and  places  of  worship;  and  already 
about  £15,000  have  been  expended  in  Adelaide  and  its  vicinity 
in  erecting  chapels  for  Christian  worship.  Three  millions  of 
capital  have  been  invested  in  this  province  up  to  the  1st  De- 
cember, 1841,  and  491,984  acres  of  land  have  been  surveyed. 
The  climate  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  salubrious  in  the 
world,  and  it  has  sometimes  been  alluded  to  as  "  the  fair  and 
fertile  province  of  South  Australia."  Its  winter,  which  is 
milt],  is  in  May,  June,  and  July;  and  its  summer  in  Novem- 
ber, December,  and  January. 

Van  Dienuin''s  Land  is  an  island  of  about  the  size  of  Eng- 
land, which  is  separated  from  New  Holland  by  a  channel 
ninety  miles  wide,  called  Bass'  strait.  Its  shape  is  nearly 
that  of  a  parallelogram.  It  is  more  hilly  and  better  watered 
than  Australia,  and  possesses  many  excellent  harbours.  Its 
capital  is  Hobart  town,  situated  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
island,  and  on  the  northern  shore  is  Launcetown,  the  second 
town,  and  a  busy  seat  of  trade.  The  population  of  the  island 
was  lately  estimated  at  twenty-five  thousand,  of  which  about 
one-half  were  convicts. 

JS'ew  Zealand  consists  chiefly  of  two  large  islands,  called 
the  Middle  island,  and  the  North  island,  separated  by  a  pas- 
sage called  Cook's  straits,  with  numerous  smaller  isles  scat- 
tered around  their  shores.  They  lie  in  an  easterly  direction 
from  New  Holland,  at  a  distance  of  about  twelve  hundred 
miles  from  that  continent,  between  the  thirty-fourth  and  forty- 
eighth  degrees  of  south  latitude,  and  the  one  hundred  and 
sixty-sixth  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-ninth  of  east  longi- 
tude. The  southern  island  is  about  five  hundred  miles  long, 
and  nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty  broad.  The  northern  is 
about  four  hundred  miles  long,  and  from  five  to  thirty  broad.- 


160  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

Both  the  islands  are  estimated  to  contain  ninety-five  lliousand 
square  miles,  of  which  two-thirds  are  fit  for  cultivation. 
Numbers  of  fine  streams  and  rivers  are  scattered  through  the 
country,  and  the  bays  and  harbours  are  not  surpassed  either 
in  number  or  advantages  by  those  of  any  country  in  the 
world.  A  cfeain  of  mountains  runs  through  the  whole  of  the 
soutliern  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  northern  island,  some 
of  tlie  tops  of  which  are  as  high  as  fourteen  thousand  feet 
above  tlie  level  of  the  sea,  and  present  a  highly  picturesque 
appearance.  All  accounts  agree  that  the  climate  is  highly 
salubrious,  and  very  congenial  to  European  constitutions. 
Tlie  natives  of  this  country  were  formerly  savage  and  dan- 
gerous, but  are  now  partially  improved  and  comparatively 
harndess  in  disposition,  the  missionaries  having  now  acquired 
a  considerable  influence  over  certain  tribes.  It  is  universally 
admitted  that  they  are  a  robust  and  healthy  looking  people  ; 
and  Captain  Cook  observes  that  he  never  saw  a  single  person 
among  them  who  appeared  to  have  any  bodily  complaint,  and 
that  their  wounds  healed  with  astonishing  rapidity.  The 
entire  population  of  this  country  has  been  estimated  at  one 
hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  five 
persons  to  three  square  miles.  The  A^erv  Zealand  Company 
ior  colonizing  this  country  was  established  in  May,  1839, 
and  is  now  employed  in  carrying  its  plans  into  eflect.  Land 
has  been  purchased  from  the  natives,  and  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  adventurers  have  already  taken  possession  of  certain 
districts.  A  township  has  been  marked  out  on  the  shores  of 
Port  Nicholson — a  fine  harbour  in  the  northern  island  about 
the  centre  of  Cook's  straits — to  be  named  Wellington,  which 
it  is  supposed  will  be  the  capital  of  the  colony.  But  appre- 
hensions are  entertained  that  misunderstandings  and  serious 
disputes  may  arise  between  the  settlers  and  the  natives,  and 
that  the  runaway  convicts  from  Botany  Bay,  and  the  southern 
whalers,  will  introduce  dissension  and  immorality  among  the 
colonists. 

JYciv  Guinea^  next  to  New  Holland,  is  the  largest  island 
of  Australasia,  being  fourteen  hundred  miles  long.  It  is  in- 
habited by  Papuans,  with  the  still  ruder  race  of  Ilaraforas  in 
the  interior.  This  island  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  coun- 
tries in  existence,  producing  most  of  the  rich  fruits  of  the 
torrid  zone,  such  as  cocoas,  nutmegs,  cloves,  and  spices  of 
all  kinds,  and  is  every  where  covered  with  lofty  forests.  The 
Papuans  are  much  farther  advanced  in  civilisation  than  the 
New  Hollanders ;  but  no  European  nation  has  yet  attempted 
a  settlement  in  this  island.     JVew  Britain,  JVeiv  Ireland,  and 


GEOGRAPHY.  161 

several  others,  compose  a  group  inhabited  by  Papuans.  The 
Archipelago,  called  the  Solomon's  islands  is  inhabited  by  Pa- 
puans, with  a  mixture  of  Malays. 

Polynesia^  or  "  the  many  isles,"    includes    the   numerous 
groups  of  islands  with   which  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
Pacific  ocean  is  diversified.     They  principally  lie  in  an  east- 
erly and    north-easterly  direction    from    Australasia,    within 
about  thirty  degrees  on  both  sides  of  the  equator.     They  are 
many  thousands  in  number,  and  are  inhabited  by  savage  races, 
who  have  generally  been  found  more  tractable  than  the  bar- 
barous  tribes   of  other  parts  of  the  world.      They  may  be 
divided  into  the  great  groups  of  the  Society^  Sandwich^  Mar- 
quesas^ Friendly^  JVavigator''s^  Caroline^  and  Marianne  islands, 
with  several  others.     Most  of  these  islands  are  fruitful  and 
beautiful ;  some  are  exceedingly  high  and  romantic,  and  their 
climate  is  reckoned  the  most  delicious  on  the  globe.     The 
Society  islands,  though  not  the  largest,  are  the  most  beautiful, 
and   those  in  which  civilisation  and  polished  manners  have 
made  the  greatest  progress.     Tahiti,  the  largest  in  the  group, 
is  one  of  the  brightest  gems  of  the  Pacific,  as  the  people  of 
this  island  were  the  first  to  abjure  paganism  and  to  embrace 
Christianity.     It  consists  of  two  peninsulas,  joined  by  a  nar- 
row isthmus.     The  one  is  about  twenty-five  miles  long  and 
about  the  same  in  breadth.     The  other  is  about  twenty  miles 
in  length  by  fifteen  in  breadth.     The  religion  of  the  natives, 
like  that  of  the  Tonga,  Sandwich,  and  other  islanders,  was, 
till  within  these  twenty  or  thirty  years,  idolatry  of  the  most 
barbarous  kind,  their  manners  were  extremely  licentious,  and 
their  dispositions  sometimes  ferocious  and  cruel.     They  were 
perpetually  at  war  among  themselves,  and  their  contests  were 
of  the  most  relentless  and  cruel  character.     But,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  labours  of  Christian  missionaries,  sent  out  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society,  the  majority  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  this  and  the  adjacent  islands  have  made  an  open  pro- 
fession of  Christianity.     Their  places  of  idolatrous  worship 
have  been  thrown  down,  their  idol  gods  destroyed,  and  an 
end  put  to  their  ferocious  and  destructive  wars.     The  whole 
of  the  sacred  Scriptures  has  been  translated  into  their  native 
language ;  they  are  learning  to  read  the  word  of  God  ;  and, 
in  numerous  instairces,  they  have  made  a  wonderful  progress 
in  studying  its  facts  and  doctrines,  and  in  practising  those 
duties  which  it  enjoins.     The  consequence  has  been  that  they 
have  made  a  great  improvement  in  all  the  arts  and  accommoda- 
tions of  life.     They  have  built  ships,  engaged  in  manufactures 
of  different  kinds,  reared  spacious  places  of  worship,  established 

14* 


162  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

schools  and  other  seminaries  of  instruction,  erected  villages, 
adorned  with  neat  and  commodious  habitations,  and  have 
made  astonishing  progress  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  The 
moral  transforjiiation  and  improvements  which  have  been  ef- 
fected among  the  inhabitants  of  these  islands,  in  consequence 
of  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  afford  a  striking  and  in- 
contestable proof,  that  there  are  no  tribes  on  the  face  of  the 
earth,  however  barbarous  and  debased,  but  may  be  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  their  moral  and  intellectual  natures,  were  the 
religion  of  the  Bible  once  introduced  among  them,  and  every 
other  judicious  mean  employed  to  promote  their  progress  in 
knowledge  and  civilisation. 

The  Sandivich  islands  lie  about  twenty  degrees  north  of 
the  equator,  and  about  two  thousand  live  hundred  miles  nordi 
by  west  of  Tahiti.  Owhyhee,  the  largest  of  the  group,  is 
remarkable  for  the  murder  of  the  celebrated  Captain  Cook,  in 
1779.  It  measures  eiglily-four  miles  in  length,  by  seventy  in 
breadth.  It  abounds  with  lofty  mountains.  Mount  Roa  rises 
to  the  height  of  sixteen  thousand  feet,  and  Mount  Koa  to  the 
height  of  eighteen  thousand  feet,  the  tops  of  both  being 
covered  with  perpetual  snow.  It  also  abounds  \vith  volcanoes. 
The  volcano  of  Peli,  on  the  flank  of  Mount  Roa,  is  reckoned 
one  of  the  most  striking  and  awful  in  any  part  of  the  world. 
The  people  of  the  Sandwich  islands  have,  of  late  years,  em- 
braced Christianity,  and  several  missionaries  from  the  United 
States  are  now  settled  in  those  regions.  A  considerable  part 
of  the  population,  including  the  king  and  his  court,  attend  the 
schools  they  have  established,  and  the  ordinances  of  Chris- 
tian worship.  They  have  formed  a  small  navy,  and  carry  on 
a  profitable  trade  with  foreigners,  and  the  general  state  of 
morals  is  undergoing  a  great  improvement. 

The  Friendly  islands  include  the  Fejee,  and  several  other 
detached  islands,  of  which  Tongataboo  is  the  largest.  They 
enjoy  a  remarkably  rich  soil,  which  is  carefully  cultivated  by 
the  natives,  who  rank  among  the  most  respectable  of  the  South 
sea  islanders,  and  are  remarkable  for  their  neatness  and  skill 
in  improving  and  enclosing  their  lands.  Christianity  has  been 
lately  introduced  into  some  of  these  islands,  chiefly  by  the 
persevering  labours  of  the  Wesleyan  missionaries.  Their 
population  is  reckoned  at  about  one  hundred  thousand.  The 
JS'avigator'^s  islands  are  among  the  most  important  and  fertile 
groups  yet  discovered  in  southern  Polynesia.  The  natives  are 
uncommonly  tall  and  stout,  and  remarkable  for  a  ferocity  of 
character  scarcely  found  in  any  other  part  of  Polynesia. 
Here,  however,  the  Christian  religion  has  lately  been  intro- 


GEOGRArHY.  163 

duced,  and  is  already  producing  many  interesting  and  benefi- 
cent efiects.  Tlie  Marquesas  are  situated  north  by  east  from 
tlie  Society  isles,  within  nine  degrees  of  the  equator.  Their 
inhabitants  are  distinguished  for  their  fair  complexion  and  j)e- 
culiar  beauty,  but  they  are  fierce  and  licentious  in  their  cha-" 
racters.  Christianity  has  been  introduced,  but  has  hitherto 
produced  little  effect  upon  them.  The  JYcio  Hebrides  are  a 
group  generally  covered  with  mountains,  some  of  which  con- 
tain volcanoes.  They  are  situated  about  five  or  six  hundred 
miles  west  of  the  Friendly  isles,  and  were  first  discovered 
by  Quiros  in  1606,  when  they  were  supposed  to  be  part  of  a 
great  southern  continent  which  philosophers  then  imagined  to 
exist.  But  Cook,  in  1 774,  explored  the  whole  group,  and  gave 
them  the  name  of  the  New  Hebrides.  The  cluster  consists  of 
about  seventeen  islands,  of  which  Terra  del  EspirUu  Santo  is 
the  largest.  At  Erromango,  one  of  these  islands,  the  deeply 
lamented  missionary,  Williams,  was  treacherously  and  cruelly 
murdered  by  the  natives,  along  with  another  missionary  of 
the  name  of  Harris,  in  1839,  when  attempting  to  introduce 
Christianity  among  them.  This  island  will  be  as  much  dis- 
tinguished in  future  ages  for  this  atrocious  murder  as  the 
island  of  Owhyhee  has  been  for  the  murder  of  Captain  Cook. 
Tlie  geographical  discoveries  of  this  celebrated  circumnavi- 
gator prepared  the  way  for  most  of  the  missionary  operations 
which  have  been  undertaken  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ;  and 
of  all  the  labourers  in  this  work  of  philanthropy,  none  stands 
&o  conspicuous,  for  unwearied  beneficent  exertions  in  this  holy 
cause,  and  for  the  important  and  beneficial  efiects  with  which 
they  have  been  accompanied,  as  the  lamented  Williams.  His 
''Narrative  of  Missionary  Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea 
Islands"  deserves  to  be  read  by  every  Christian,  by  every 
philosopher  and  statesman,  and  by  every  one  who  feels  delight 
in  contemplating  beneficent  actions  and  romantic  incidents. 

In  regard  to  the  human  inhabitants  that  occupy  the  different 
regions  now  specified — they  have  been  divided  by  some  geo- 
graphers into  the  six  following  classes  :. — 1.  The  dwarfish 
inhabitants  of  the  polar  regions;  as  the  Laplanders,  the  Green- 
landers,  and  the  Esquimaux.  2.  The  flat-nosed,  olive-coloured, 
tawny  race;  as  the  Tartars,  the  Chinese,  and  the  Japanese. 
3.  The  blacks  of  Asia  with  European  features.  Of  tliis  de- 
scription are  the  Hindoos,  the  Birmans,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  islands  in  the  Indian  ocean.  4.  The  woolly-haired  ne- 
groes of  Africa,  distinguished  by  their  black  colour,  their  flat 
noses,  and  their  thick  lips.  5.  The  copper-coloured  native 
Americans,  distinguished  likewise  by  their  black  hair,  small 


164  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

black  eyes,  high  cheek  bones,  and  flat  noses.  6.  The  sixth 
variety  is  tlie  white  European  nations,  as  the  British,  the 
French,  the  Italians,  and  the  Germans. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  which  people  the  earth,  at  one 
time,  may  be  estimated  to  amount  to  at  least  eight  hundred 
miUions;  of  which  five  hundred  millions  may  be  assigned  to 
Asia;  fifty-eight  millions  to  Africa;  forty-two  millions  to 
America;  and  two  hundred  millions  to  Europe.  With  regard 
to  their  religion,  they  may  be  estimated  as  follows  : — 

Pagans,  -  -  -  -  490,000,000 
Mahometans,  -  -  -  100,000,000 
Roman  Catholics,  -  -  100,000,000 
Protestants,  -  -  -  -  55,000,000 
Greeks  and  Armenians,  50,000,000 
Jews, -      5,000,000 


800,000,000 


From  this  estimate  it  appears,  that  there  are  nearly  3  Pa- 
gans and  Mahometans  to  1  Christian,  and  only  1  Protestant 
to  about  14  of  all  the  other  denominations.  Although  all  the 
Roman  Catholics,  Greeks,  and  Protestants,  were  reckoned  true 
Christians,  there  still  remain  more  than  595  millions  of  our 
fellow-men  ignorant  of  the  true  God,  and  of  his  will  as 
revealed  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  ;  which  shows  what  a  vast 
field  of  exertion  still  lies  open  to  Christian  benevolence,  be- 
fore the  blessings  of  civilisation,  mental  improvement,  rational 
liberty,  and  Christianity,  be  fully  communicated  to  the  Pagan 
and  Mahometan  world. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  earth,  at  an  average,  has  always 
been  as  populous  as  it  is  now,  and  that  it  contains  eight  hun- 
dred millions  of  inhabitants,  as  above  stated,  and  if  we  reckon 
thirty-two  years  for  a  generation,  at  the  end  of  which  period, 
the  whole  human  race  is  renewed;  it  will  follow,  that  one 
hundred  and  forty-six  thousand  two  hundred  millions  of 
human  beings  have  existed  on  the  earth  since  the  present 
system  of  our  globe  commenced,  reckoning  five  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  forty-six  years  from  Adam  to  the  present 
time.*     And  consequently,  if  mankind  had  never  died,  there 

*  This  calculation  proceeds  on  the  supposition,  that  only  four  thousand 
and  four  years  elapsed  between  the  creation  of  man  and  the  birth  of 
Christ,  accordinif  to  the  Hebrew  chronology.  But  Dr.  Hales,  in  his  late 
work  on  Scripture  clironology,  has  proved,  almost  to  a  demonstration, 
that,  from  the  creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  are  to  be  reckoned  five 


GEOGRAPHY.  165 

would  have  been  nearly  one  hundred  and  eighty-three  times 
the  present  number  of  the  earth's  inhabitants  now  in  existence. 
It  follows  from  this  statement,  that  twenty-five  millions  of 
mankind  die  every  year,  two  thousand  eight  hundred  and  tifly- 
three  every  hour,  and  forty-seven  every  minute,  and  that  at 
least  an  equal  number,  during  these  periods,  are  emerging 
from  non-existence  to  the  stage  of  life ;  so  that  almost  every 
moment,  a  rational  and  immortal  being  is  ushered  into  the 
world,  and  another  is  transported  to  the  invisible  state. 
Whether,  therefore,  we  contemplate  the  world  of  matter,  or 
the  world  of  miiid,  iire  perceive  incessant  changes  and  revolu- 
tions going  on,  which  are  gradually  carrying  forward  the 
earth  and  its  inhabitants  to  some  important  consummation. 
If  we  suppose,  that  before  the  close  of  time,  as  many  human 
beings  will  be  brought  into  existence,  as  have  already  existed 
during  the  by-past  ages  of  the  world,  there  will,  of  course,  be 
found  at  the  general  resurrection,  292,400,000,000  of  man- 
kind. Vast  as  such  an  assemblage  would  be,  tlie  whole  of 
the  human  beings  here  supposed,  allowing  six  square  feet  for 
every  individual,  could  be  assembled  within  the  space  of  about 
sixty-two  thousand  four  hundred  square  miles,  or  on  a  tract 
of  land  not  much  larger  than  that  of  England,  which  contains, 
according  to  the  most  accurate  calculation,  above  fifty  thou- 
sand square  miles. 

Our  world  is  capable  of  sustaining  a  much  greater  number 
of  inhabitants  than  has  ever  yet  existed  upon  it  at  any  one 
lime.  And  since  we  are  informed  in  the  sacred  oracles,  that 
God  "  created  it  not  in  vain,  but  formed  it  to  he  inhabUed,''^ 
we  have  reason  to  believe,  that,  in  future  ages,  when  the  phy- 
sical and  moral  energies  of  mankind  shall  be  fully  exerted, 
and  when  peace  shall  wave  her  olive  branch  over  the  nations, 
the  earth  will  be  much  more  populous  than  it  has  ever  been, 
and  tiiose  immense  deserts,  where  ravenous  animals  now  roam 
undisturbed,  will  be  transformed  into  scenes  of  fertility  and 
beauty.  If  it  be  admitted  that  the  produce  of  twelve  acres  of 
land  is  sufficient  to  maintain  a  family  consisting  of  six  per- 
sons, and  if  we  reckon  only  one  fourth  of  the  surface  of  the 
globe  capable  of  cultivation,  it  can  be  proved,  that  the  earth 

thousand  four  hundred  and  eleven  years  ;  and  this  computation  nearly 
agrees  with  the  Samaritan  and  Septuagint  chronology,  and  with  that  of 
Josephus.  According  to  this  computation,  seven  thousand  two  hundred 
and  talty-three  years  are  to  be  reckoned  from  the  creation  to  tlie  present 
time  ;  and  consequently,  two  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  five  hundred 
millions  of  human  beings  will  have  existed  since  the  creation,  which  is 
more  than  two  hundred  and  twenty-six  times  the  number  of  inhabitants 
presently  existing. 


166  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

could  afTord  sustenance  for  sixteen  thousand  millions  of  in- 
habitants, or  tivcnfy  times  the  number  that  is  presently  sup- 
posed to  exist.  So  that  we  have  no  reason  to  fear  that  the 
world  will  be  overstocked  with  inhabitants  for  many  ages  to 
come ;  or  that  a  period  may  soon  arrive  when  the  increase  of 
population  will  surpass  the  means  of  subsistence,  as  some  of 
the  disciples  of  Malthus  have  lately  insinuated.  To  suppose, 
as  some  of  these  gentlemen  seem  to  do,  that  wars  and  diseases, 
poverty  and  pestilence,  are  necessary  evils,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  increase  of  the  human  race  beyond  the  means  of  subsist- 
ence which  nature  can  afford — while  the^mmense  regions  of 
New  Holland,  New  Guinea,  Borneo,  and  the  greater  part  of 
Africa  and  America,  are  almost  destitute  of  inhabitants — is 
both  an  insult  on  the  dignity  of  human  nature,  and  a  rellection 
on  the  wisdom  and  beneficence  of  Divine  Providence.  Tiie 
Creator  is  benevolent  and  bountiful,  and  "•  his  tender  mercies 
are  over  all  his  works  ;"  but  man,  by  his  tyranny,  ambition, 
and  selfishness,  has  counteracted  tlie  streams  of  Divine  bene- 
ficence, and  introduced  into  the  social  state,  poverty,  disorder, 
and  misery,  with  all  their  attendant  train  of  evils;  and  it  is 
not  before  such  demoralizing  principles  be  in  some  measure 
eradicated,  and  the  principles  of  Christian  benevolence  brought 
into  active  operation,  that  the  social  state  of  man  will  be  greatly 
meliorated,  and  the  bounties  of  heaven  fully  enjoyed  by  the 
human  race.  If,  in  the  present  deranged  state  of  the  social 
and  political  world,  it  be  found  difficult  in  any  particular 
country,  to  find  sustenance  for  its  inhabitants,  emigration  is 
the  obvious  and  natural  remedy;  and  the  rapid  emigrations 
which  are  now  taking  place  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  New 
Holland,  New  Zealand,  Van  Dieman's  Land,  and  America, 
are  doubtless  a  part  of  those  arrangements  of  Providence,  by 
which  the  Creator  will  accomplish  his  designs,  in  peopling 
the  desolate  wastes  of  our  globe,  and  promoting  the  progress 
of  knowledge  and  of  the  true  religion  among  the  scattered 
tribes  of  mankind. 

With  that  branch  of  knowledge  to  which  I  have  now  ad- 
verted, every  individual  of  the  human  race  ought  to  be  in  some 
measure  acquainted.  For  it  is  unworthy  of  the  dignity  of  a 
rational  being,  to  stalk  abroad  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
enjoy  the  bounty  of  his  Creator,  without  considering  the 
nature  and  extent  of  his  sublunary  habitation,  the  variety  of 
august  objects  it  contains,  the  relation  in  which  he  stands  to 
otlier  tribes  of  intelligent  agents,  and  the  wonderful  machinery 
which  is  in  constant  operation  for  supplying  his  wants,  and 


GEOGRAPHY.  167 

for  producing  the  revolutions  of  day  and  night,  spring  and 
autumn,  summer  and  winter.  In  a  religious  point  of  view, 
geography  is  a  science  of  peculiar  interest.  For  "  the  salva- 
tion of  God,"  which  Christianity  unfolds,  is  destined  to  be 
proclaimed  in  every  land,  in  order  that  men  of  all  nations, 
and  kindreds,  and  tongues,  may  participate  in  its  blessings. 
,But,  without  exploring  every  region  of  the  earth,  and  the 
numerous  islands  which  are  scattered  over, the  surface  of  the 
oceaH,  and  opening  up  a  regular  intercourse  with  the  different 
tribes  of  human  beings,  which  dwell  upon  its  surface,  we  can 
never  carry  into  effect  the  purpose  of  God  by  "  making  known 
his  salvation  to  the  ends  of  the  earth."  As  God  has  ordained, 
that  "  all  flesh  shall  see  the  salvation"  he  has  accomplished, 
and  that  human  beings  shall  be  the  agents  for  carrying  his 
designs  into  effect — so  we  may  rest  assured,  that  he  has  or- 
dained every  mean  requisite  for  accomplishing  this  end;  and 
consequently,  that  it  is  his  will  that  men  sliould  study  the 
figure  and  magnitude  of  the  earth,  and  all  those  arts  by  which 
they  may  be  enabled  to  traverse  and  explore  the  different 
regions  of  land  and  water,  which  compose  the  terraqueous 
globe — and  that  it  is  also  his  will,  that  every  one  who  feels 
an  interest  in  the  present  and  eternal  happiness  of  his  fellow- 
men,  should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  result  of  all 
the  discoveries  in  this  science  that  have  been  or  may  yet  be 
made,  in  order  to  stimulate  his  activity,  in  conveying  to  the 
wretched  sons  of  Adam,  wherever  they  may  be  found,  "  the 
unsearchable  riches  of  Christ." 

To  the  missionary,  and  the  directors  of  Bible  and  missionary 
societies,  a  minute  and  comprehensive  knowledge  of  this 
science,  and  of  all  the  facts  connected  with  it,  is  essentially  re- 
quisite ;  without  which  they  would  often  grope  in  the  dark, 
and  spend  their  money  in  vain,  and  "  their  labour  for  tliat 
which  doth  not  profit."  They  must  be  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  extensive  field  of  operation  which  lies  before  them, 
and  with  the  physical,  the  moral,  and  the  political  state  of  the 
different  tribes  to  which  they  intend  to  send  the  message  of 
salvation  ;  otherwise,  their  exertions  will  be  made  at  random, 
and  their  schemes  be  conducted  without  judgement  or  discri- 
mination. To  attempt  to  direct  the  movements  of  missionary 
societies,  without  an  intimate  knowledge  of  this  subject,  is  as 
foolish  and  absurd  as  it  would  be  for  a  land  surveyor  to  lay 
down  plans  for  the  improvement  of  a  gentleman's  estate,  before 
he  had  surveyed  the  premises,  and  made  himself  acquainted 
with  the  objects  upon  them,  in  their  various  aspects,  positions, 
and  bearing.     If  all  those  who  direct  and  support  the  opera- 


1G8  CIIIUSTIAN   PHILOSOniER. 

tions  of  stch  societies,  were  familiarly  acquainted  with  the 
different  fields  for  missionary  exertions,  and  with  the  peculiar 
state  and  character  of  the  diversified  tribes  of  the  heathen 
world,  so  far  a^  they  are  known,  injudicious  schemes  might 
be  frustrated  before  they  are  carried  into  effect,  and  the  funds 
of  such  institutions  preserved  from  being  wasted  to  no  pur- 
pose. In  this  view,  it  is  the  duty  of  every  Christian  to  mark 
the  progress  and  the  results  of  the  various  geographical  expe- 
ditions vvhich  are  now  going  forward  in  quest  of  discoveries, 
in  connexion  with  the  moral  and  political  movements  which 
are  presently  agitating  the  nations:  for  every  navigator,  who 
ploughs  the  ocean  in  search  of  new  islands  and  continents, 
and  every  traveller  who  explores  the  interior  of  unknown 
countries,  should  be  considered  as  so  many  pioneers,  sent  be- 
forehand, by  Divine  Providence,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
labours  of  the  missionary,  and  for  the  combined  exertions  of 
Christian  benevolence.* 

*  On  this  subject  the  author  feels  great  pleasure  in  referring  his  readers 
to  a  small  volume,  lately  published  by  James  Douglass,  Esq.,  of  Cavers, 
entitled.  •'  Hints  on  Missions," — a  work  which  deserves  the  attentive  pe- 
rusal, both  of  the  philosopher,  the  politician,  and  the  Christian,  and  particu- 
larly of  the  directors  of  missionary  societies ;  and  which  is  characterized 
by  a  spirit  of  enlishtened  philanthropy,  and  a  condensation  of  thought, 
which  has  seldom  been  equalled  in  the  discussion  of  such  topics.  It  con- 
centrates, as  it  were,  into  a  focus,  the  light  which  has  been  reflected  from 
hundreds  of  volumes  ;  and  the  original  hints  it  suggests  claim  the  serious 
consideration  of  the  superintendents  of  missionary  schemes;  without  an 
attention  to  some  of  which,  the  beneficial  effects  resulting  from  such  un- 
dertakings will  be  few  and  unimportant.  The  following  excellent  works, 
rccentlvl^ublished  on  this  subject,  are  warmly  recommended  to  the  seri- 
ous a'tention  of  the  reader: — 1.  "  Th'  Great  Commission,'"  by  Dr.  Harris, 
President  of  Cheshunt  College. author  of  "  Mammon,"  &c. — a  prize  essay 
on  Christian  missions,  to  which  the  highest  prize  of  200  guineas  was 
award'^'d.  This  work  has  been  generally  characterized  as  "A  masterly 
production,  comprehensive  in  plan,  elegant  in  diction,  happy  in  illustration, 
cogent  and  conclu.'^ive  in  reasoning,  powerful  in  appeal,  and  a  book  which 
every  Christian  in  the  world  ought  to  read."  2.  "  Missions,  their  authority, 
scoo",  and  encouragpment,"  by  the  Rev.  Richard  W.  Hamilton,  Leeds, 
to  whirh  the  second  prize  of  the  association  alluded  to  above  was  adjudged. 
This  work  has  likewise  been  characterized  by  properties  somewhat  sirnilar 
to  those  which  have  been  applied  to  "The  Great  Commission,"  and  the 
author  has  been  culosfized  as  a  writer  of  great  power  and  originality.  3. 
"  The  JuhiJer  -^f  the  World,''  by  the  Rev.  J.  Macfarlane,  minister  of  Co- 
lessie,  published  at  the  recommendation  of  four  of  the  adjiidicators  of  the 
Missionary  Prize  Essays — a  volume  which  is  justly  considered  as  "  the 
prohi^tiori  of  a  wpU  disciplined  mind,  accustomed  to  think  deeply  and  af- 
curafelv  on  any  subject  to  which  its  energies  might  be  directed — that  its 
tone  and  temper  are  decidedly  evangelical,  its  spirit  eminently  catholic,  and 
V9.  appeals  stir .ing  and  ajipropriate."  4.  "  Christian  Missio7is  to  Heathen 
Natio?is,'"  by  the  Honourable  Baptist  W.  Noel,  M.  A.  Though  this  vo- 
hime  is  not  considered  equal  to  Mr.  Macfarlane's  in  point  of  close  argu- 
ment and  logical  deductions,  yet  it  has  the  advantage  of  it  as  a  practical 
treatise  on  missionary  work,  and  evinces  a  mmute  acquaintance  with  the 


GEOGRAPHY.  169 

But  even  to  every  private  Christian,  geography  is  an  inter- 
esting branch  of  study,  without  some  knowledge  of  which, 
his  prayers  and  his  Christian  sympathies  cannot  be  judiciously 
and  extensively  directed.  We  occasionally  hear  the  ministers 
of  religion,  at  the  commencement  of  public  worship  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  imploring  the  Divine  blessing  on  their 
brethren  throughout  the  Christian  church,  who  are  com- 
mencing the  same  exercises  ;  and  at  the  close  of  worship  in  the 
afternoon,  that  the  same  blessing  may  seal  the  instructions 
which  have  been  delivered  in  all  the  churches  of  the  saints ; 
as  if  all  the  public  religious  services  of  the  universal  church 
were,  at  that  moment,  drawing  to  a  close.  This  is  all  very 
well,  so  far  as  it  goes :  the  expression  of  such  benevolent 
wishes  is  highly  becoming,  and  congenial  to  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity. But  a  very  slight  acquaintance  with  geographical 
science  will  teach  us,  that  when  we  in  this  country  are  com- 
mencing the  religious  services  of  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
our  Christian  brethren  in  the  East  Indies,  who  live  under  a 
very  different  meridian,  have  finished  theirs ;  those  in  Russia, 
Poland,  Greece,  Palestine,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Caspian 
sea,  have  performed  one-half  of  their  public  religious  worship 
and  instructions ;  and  those  in  New  Holland  and  Van  Die- 
man's  Land  have  retired  to  rest  at  the  close  of  their  sabbath. 
On  the  other  hand,  our  friends  in  the  West  India  islands,  and 
in  America,  at  the  close  of  our  worship,  are  only  about  to 
commence  the  public  instructions  of  the  Christian  sabbath.  If, 
then,  it  be  admitted,  that  our  prayers,  in  certain  cases,  ought 
to  be  sjKciJic^  to  have  a  reference  to  the  particular  cases  and 
relations  of  certain  classes  of  individuals,  there  can  be  no  valid 
reason  assigned,  why  they  should  not  have  a  reference  to  the 
geographical  positions  of  the  different  portions  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  as  well  as  to  those  who  live  on  or  near  our  own 
meridian :  that,  for  example,  in  the  beginning  of  our  public 
devotions,  we  might  implore  that  the  blessing  of  God  may  ac- 
company the  instructions  which  have  been  delivered  in  the  east- 
ern parts  of  the  world  ;  and,  at  the  close  of  the  worship,  that 
the  same  agency  may  direct  the  exercises  of  those  in  the  western 
hemisphere,  who  are  about  to  enter  on  the  sacred  services  of 
that  day.     On  the  same  principle,  we  may  perceive  the  ab- 

whole  scene  of  missionary  labours,  which,  in  this  respect,  is  considered  by 
some  as  superior  to  any  of  the  other  essays.  Were  these  works  carefully 
perused  by  the  great  mass  of  the  Christian  world,  their  spirit  imbibed,  and 
their  practical  suggestions  carried  into  effect,  the  world  would,  ere  long, 
be  regenerated,  and  the  dawn  of  the  millennial  era  would  soon  make  its 
appearance. 

15 


170  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

surdity  of  those  '^  concerts'''  for  praying  in  different  places  at  the 
same  hour^  which  were  lately  proposed,  and  attempted  by  a 
certain  portion  of  the  religious  world.  Even  within  the  limits 
of  Europe  this  could  not  be  attempted,  with  the  prospects  of 
Christians  joining  in  devotion  at  one  and  the  same  time;  for 
when  it  is  six  o'clock  in  one  part  of  Europe,  it  is  eight  in 
another,  and  live  o'clock  at  a  third  place  ;  much  less  could 
such  a  concert  take  place  throughout  Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 
So  that  science,  and  a  calm  consideration  of  the  nature  and 
relations  of  things,  may  teach  us  to  preserve  our  devotional 
fervour  and  zeal  within  the  bounds  of  reason  and  propriety ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  direct  our  reflections,  and  our  Chris- 
tian sympathies,  to  take  a  wider  range  than  that  to  which  they 
are  usually  confined. 

Besides  the  consideration  now  suggested,  a  serious  contem- 
plation of  the  physical  objects  and  movements  which  this 
science  exhibits,  has  a  tendency  to  excite  pious  and  reverential 
emotions.  To  contemplate  this  huge  globe  of  land  and  water, 
flying  with  rapidity  through  the  voids  of  space,  conveying  its 
vast  population  from  one  region  to  another,  at  the  rate  of  fif- 
teen hundred  thousand  miles  in  a  day,  and  whirling  round  its 
axis  at  the  same  time,  to  produce  the  constant  succession  of 
day  and  night, — to  contemplate  the  lofty  ridges  of  mountains 
that  stretch  around  it  in  every  direction  ;  the  flaming  volca- 
noes ;  the  roaring  cataracts ;  the  numerous  rivers,  incessantly 
rolling  their  watery  treasures  into  the  seas  ;  the  majestic  ocean, 
and  its  unfathomable  caverns ;  the  vapours  rising  from  its  sur- 
face, and  replenishing  the  springs  and  rivers ;  the  avalanche 
hurling  down  the  mountain's  side  with  a  noise  like  thunder; 
the  luxuriant  plains  of  the  torrid  zone  ;  the  rugged  cliffs  and 
icebergs  of  the  polar  regions ;  and  thousands  of  other  objects 
of  diversified  beauty  and  sublimity, — has  an  evident  tendency 
to  expand  the  conceptions  of  the  human  mind,  to  increase  its 
sources  of  rational  enjoyment,  and  to  elevate  the  affections  to 
that  all-powerful  Being  who  gave  birth  to  all  the  sublimities 
of  nature,  and  who  incessantly  superintends  all  its  movements. 

in  fine,  from  the  numerous  moral  facts  whicli  geography 
unfolds,  we  learn  the  vast  depth  and  extent  of  that  moral  de- 
gradation into  which  the  human  race  has  ftillen — the  ferocious 
tempers,  and  immoral  practices,  which  are  displayed  in  the 
regions  of  Pagan  idolatry — the  horrid  cruelties,  and  vile  abomi- 
nations, that  are  daily  perpetrated  under  the  sanction  of  what 
is  termed  religion — the  wide  extent  of  population  over  which 
the  prince  of  darkness  sways  his  sceptre — the  difficulties 
which  require  to  be  surmounted,  before  "  the  gospel  of  salva- 


GEOLOGY. 


171 


tion"  can  extend  its  full  influence  thronghout  the  Pagan  world 
— and  the  vast  energies  which  are  requisite  to  accomplish  this 
glorious  event.  All  these  portions  of  information  are  calcu- 
lated to  confirm  and  illustrate  the  scriptural  doctrine  of  the 
universal  depravity  of  man — to  exercise  the  faith  of  the  Chris- 
tian on  the  promises  of  Jehovah,  in  reference  to  the  conver- 
sion of  the  benighted  nations — to  rouse  his  sympathies  towards 
his  degraded  brethren  of  mankind,  to  excite  his  intercession 
in  their  behalf,  and  to  direct  his  benevolence  and  activity,  in 
devising  and  executing  schemes  for  enlightening  the  people 
^who  are  sitting  "  in  darkness,  and  in  the  shadow  of  death." 

GEOLOGY. 

Another  subject,  intimately  related  to   the  former,  is  the 
science  of  geology. 

This  science  has  for  its  object,  to  investigate  and  describe 
the  internal  structure  of  the  earth,  the  arrangement  of  the  ma- 
terials of  which  it  is  composed,  the  circumstances  peculiar  to 
its  original  formation,  the  diflierent  states  under  which  it  has 
existed,  and  the  various  changes  it  appears  to  have  undergone 
since  the  Almighty  created  the  substance  of  wliich  it  is  com- 
posed. From  a  consideration  of  the  vast  quantity  of  materials 
contained  in  the  internal  structure  of  our  globe,  and  of  the 
limited  extent  to  which  men  can  carry  their  operations,  when 
they  attempt  to  penetrate  into  its  bowels,  it  is  obvious  that  our 
knowledge  of  this  subject  must  be  very  shallow  and  imper- 
fect. The  observations,  however,  which  have  been  made  on 
the  structure  of  our  globe  during  the  last  half  century,  and  the 
conclusions  deduced  from  them,  are  highly  interesting  both  to 
the  philosopher  and  to  the  Christian.  Before  the  facts  on 
which  this  branch  of  natural  history  is  founded  were  accu- 
rately ascertained,  various  objections  to  the  Mosaic  history  of 
the  creation  were  started  by  certain  sceptical  philosophers, 
founded  on  partial  and  erroneous  views  of  the  real  structure 
and  economy  of  the  earth.  But  it  is  now  found,  that  the 
more  accurately  and  minutely  the  system  of  nature  is  explored, 
the  more  distinctly  do  we  perceive  the  harmony  that  subsists 
between  the  records  of  revelation  and  the  operations  of  the 
Creator  in  the  material  world.  If  both  be  admitted  as  the  ef- 
fects of  the  agency  of  the  same  almighty  and  eternal  Being, 
they  must,  in  the  nature  of  things,  completely  harmonize,  and 
can  never  be  repugnant  to  each  other — whether  we  be  capable, 
in  every  in^tauQe,  of  perceiving  tiieir  complete  coincidence  or 
not.     Jf  any  facts  could  be  produced  in  the  visible  creation 


172  CHRISTIAN  rillLOSOPHEK. 

Avhich  directly  contradict  the  records  of  the  Bible,  it  would 
form  a  proof,  that  the  oracles  which  we  hold  as  Divine  were 
not  dictated  by  the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe. 
But  althougli  some  garbled  facts  have  been  triumphantly  ex- 
hibited in  tliis  view,  it  is  now  ascertained,  from  the  discoveries 
which  have  been  lately  made  in  relation  to  the  structure  and 
formation  of  the  earth,  that  the  truth  of  the  facts  detailed  in 
sacred  history  rests  on  a  solid  and  immutable  basis;  and  that 
the  Supreme  Intelligence  who  arranged  the  fabric  of  heaven 
and  earth,  and  he  alone,  communicated  to  the  inspired  writers 
the  doctrines  and  facts  they  have  recorded  :  and  we  have  reasoi* 
to  believe,  that  as  geologists  proceed  in  their  researches  and 
investigations,  still  more  sensible  proofs  of  the  authenticity  of 
revelation  will  be  brought  to  light. 

Geology  has  of  late  become  an  interesting  object  of  in- 
quiry to  the  student  of  general  science,  and  is  now  prose- 
cuted with  ardour  by  many  distinguished  philosophers.  The 
observations  which  have  been  made  in  various  parts  of  the 
world  by  late  navigators ;  the  facts  which  have  been  ascer- 
tained by  Pallas,  Saussure,  De  Luc,  Humboldt,  Lyal,  Sedg- 
wick, and  other  intelligent  travellers ;  and  the  discoveries 
which  have  been  brought  to  light  by  modern  chemists  and 
mineralogists,  have  all  conspired  to  facilitate  geological  in- 
quiries, to  render  them  more  enlightened  and  satisfactory,  and 
to  prepare  the  way  for  future  ages  establishing  a  rational, 
scriptural,  and  substantial  theory  of  the  earth.  The  man  who 
engages  in  such  inquiries  has  always  at  hand  a  source  of 
rational  investigation  and  enjoyment.  The  ground  on  which 
lie  treads — the  aspect  of  the  surrounding  country — the  mines, 
the  caves,  and  tlie  quarries  which  he  explores — every  new 
country  in  which  he  travels,  every  mountain  he  climbs,  and 
every  new  surface  of  the  earth  which  is  laid  open  to  his  in- 
spection, offer  to  him  novel  and  interesting  stores  of  informa- 
tion. On  descending  into  mines,  we  are  not  only  gratified 
by  displays  of  human  ingenuity,  but  we  also  acquire  views 
of  the  strata  of  earth,  and  of  the  revolutions  it  has  undergone 
since  the  period  of  its  first  formation.  Our  researches  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  amidst  abrupt  precipices  and  lofty  moun- 
tains, introduce  us  to  the  grandest  and  most  sublime  works 
of  the  Creator,  and  present  to  our  view  the  effects  of  stupen- 
dous forces,  which  have  overturned  mountains,  and  rent  the 
foundations  of  nature.  '"  In  the  midst  of  such  scenes,  the 
geologist  feels  his  mind  invigorated ;  the  magnitude  of  the  ap- 
pearances before  him  cxtinguislies  all  the  littls  and  contracted 
notions  he  may  have  formed  in  the  closet;  and  he  learns, 


GEOLOGY. 


173 


that  it  is  only  by  visiting  and  studying  those  stupendous  works, 
that  he  can  form  an  adequate  conception  of  the  great  relations 
of  the  crust  of  the  globe,  and  of  its  mode  of  formation."* 

At  first  sight,  the  solid  mass  of  the  earth  appears  to  be  a 
confused  assemblage  of  rocky  masses,  piled  on  each  other 
without  regularity  or  order,  where  none  of  those  admirable 
displays  of  skill  and  contrivance  are  to  be  observed,  which  so 
powerfully  excite  attention  in  the  structure  of  animals  and 
vegetables.  But  on  a  nearer  and  more  intimate  view,  a  va- 
riety of  beautiful  arrangements  has  been  traced  by  the  industry 
of  geologists,  and  the  light  of  modern  discoveries  :  by  which 
they  have  been  enabled  to  classify  these  apparent  irregularities 
of  nature.  The  rocks  of  which  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  chiefly 
composed  occur  in  beds  or  layers,  each  of  which  is  dis- 
tinguished by  its  peculiar  characteristic.  1.  The  first  class  is 
what  has  been  denominated  primary  rocks.  These  con- 
stitute the  great  frame-work,  or  primitive  envelope  of  the 
globe.  They  form  the  most  lofty  mountains,  and  at  the  same 
time  extend  downwards  below  all  the  other  formations  to  the 
greatest  depths  yet  penetrated  by  man,  and  constitute  every 
where  the  foundation  on  which  the  other  rocks  are  supported. 
It  is,  therefore,  supposed  that  they  were  the  earliest  formed, 
in  the  progress  of  creation  ;  and  are  hence  denominated  pri- 
mitive or  primary  rocks.  One  of  the  principal  rocks  of  this 
class  is  granite^  which  is  compounded  of  quartz^  felspar^  and 
mica.  Gneis,  or  slaty  granite,  is  considered  as  another  species  ; 
and  7nica  slate  a  third  species  of  the  primitive  rocks.  There 
are  some  other  primary  rocks  which  occur  embedded  in,  and 
interstratified  with  the  principal  primitive  rocks.  They  are 
called  subordinate  rocks,  and  are  named  as  follows  : — home- 
blende  rock,  serpentine,  crystalline  limestone,  quartz  rock. 
The  three  principal  rocks  of  this  class,  granite,  gneis,  and 
mica  slate,  might  with  propriety  be  regarded  as  belonging  to 
one  formation.  They  are  composed  essentially  of  the  same 
minerals,  varying  in  diflferent  proportions,  and  are  rather 
modes  of  the  same  rock  than  different  species.  They  pass 
by  gradations  nito  each  other,  as  one  or  other  of  their  con- 
stituent minerals  becomes  more  or  less  abundant :  they  alter- 
nate with  each  other  in  various  situations,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  contemporaneous.  Granite  is  considered  as  the  foundation 
rock,  on  which  slate  and  all  secondary  rocks  are  laid.  When 
granite  rises  above  the  surface,  the  beds  of  other  rocks  in  the 
same  district  rise  towards  it,  and  lie  against  it,  as  in  fig.  15  5 

■"  Edinburgh  Encylopoedia,  Art.  31ineralu^i/, 
15* 


174 


CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOrHER. 


but  there  are  instances  in  which  they  appear  to  pitch  under 
the  granite,  as  in  the  next  figure.  The  aspect  of  granite 
mountains  is  extremely  various.  When  the  beds  are  horizontal, 
or  when  the  rock  is  soft  and  disintegrating,  the  summits  are 
rounded  and  unpicturesque.  (See  fig.  16.)  When  hard  and 
soft  granite  occur  in  the  same  mass,  the  soft  decomposes,  and 
leaves  the  hard  in  large,  loose  masses  upon  the  soil,  or  if  they 
lie  in  alternate  and  highly  inclined  beds,  the  hard  granite 
forms  iiigh  and  almost  inaccessible  peaks,  as  seen  in  fig.  17. 
Fig.  15. 


The  structure  of  primary  rocks  is  crystalline — (see  fig.  17) 
they  form  the  central  parts  of  the  most  elevated  mountain 
chains — they  never  contain  the  fragments  of  other  rocks — 
and  they  are  particularly  distinguished  from  all  the  other  for- 
mations in  this, — tiiat  they  contain  no  remains  of  organized 
substances.  There  also  appears  conclusive  evidence,  that  ma- 
terials composing  granite,  of  which  this  class  of  rocks  chielly 
consists,  were  once  in  a  slate  of  fusion. 


GEOLOGY. 


175 


2.  The  class  of  rocks  next  in  order  to  the  primitive  are 
what  are  termed  transition  rocks, — which  are  next  and 
above  the  primitive  on  which  they  rest.  This  formation  is 
composed  of  the  larger  fragments  of  all  the  primitive  rocks 
consolidated  into  continuous  masses.  It  is  supposed  that 
tliese  rocks  were  formed,  when  the  primary  rocks  were 
thrown  up  from  the  bed  of  the  primeval  ocean,  when  the 
disruptions  caused  by  such  powerful  and  mighty  movements, 
reduced  the  higher  parts  of  the  primitive  to  fragments. — 
These  shattered  fragments  becoming  agglutinated  by  theii 
own  pulverent  cement,  recomposed  continuous  strata  which 
form  the  rocks  to  which  we  allude.  In  this  class  of  rocks 
we  first  behold  the  rudiments  of  vitality,  the  dawn  of  organisa- 
tion— the  first-born  of  earthly  creatures,  whose  existence  is 
recorded  in  imperishable  characters.  These  consist  of  organ- 
ized beings  of  the  lowest  orders,  such  as  sea  shells  of  various 
descriptions,  which  are  here  found  embedded,  and  which  afTord 
a  decisive  evidence  that  such  rocks  were  formed  after  the 
creation  of  organized  beings.  The  rocks  belonging  to  this 
class  are  transition  or  mountain  limestone — graywacke^  and 
graywacke  slate — slate  and  its  varieties.  Roof-slate,  and  the 
slate  of  which  school  slates  are  made,  are  well  known  varie- 
ties of  this  rock.  It  is  sometimes  called  clay-slate,  argilla- 
ceous slate,  and  argillaceous  schistus.  Transition  rocks  are 
the  principal  repositories  of  metallic  ores,  which  occur  both 
in  beds  and  veins  more  abundantly  in  many  of  the  rocks  of 
this  class  than  in  primary  rocks. 

3.  The  next  class  is  the  secondary  rocks,  which  lie  upon 
the  transition  rocks,  and  appear  like  deposits  composed  of 
grains  which  once  belonged  to  primitive  rocks.  Geologists 
now  divide  these  rocks  into  upfer  secondary  and  lower 
secondary.  The  principal  secondary  formations  are  :  (1) — 
The  coal  formation,  in  the  lower  secondary  series,  and  the 
rock-salt  or  saliferous  formation  in  the  upper  secondary.  The 
strata  of  the  coal  formation  are  numerous,  extensive,  and  pa- 
rallel ;  but  they  are  often  beset,  undulating,  curved,  broken, 
and  contorted  in  various  ways.  The  strata  connected  with 
tlie  coal  bear  evidences,  in  some  instances,  of  having  been 
rapidly  deposited,  as  in  the  cases  where  we  find  the  vertical 
stems"  of  plants  standing  in  their  natural  position,  in  many 
coal  mines,  and  the  rocks  deposited  around  them  in  horizontal 
or  slightly-inclined  strata.  The  stems  of  arborescent  plants, 
two  or  three  feet  in  diameter,  are  thus  found  piercing  through 
the  strata  many  feet.  In  such  a  case,  the  sand  mud  must  have 
been  deposited  within  a  comparatively  short  time  around  them, 
otherwise  in  a  climate  such  as  that  in  which  these  plants  grew. 


176  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

they  would  have  decayed  and  left  no  indications  of  their  exist- 
ence. Coal  occurs  in  regular  strata  which  vary  in  thickness 
from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  or  yards.  In  the  same  coal 
formations  many  strata  of  coal  occur  under  each  other  sepa- 
rated by  strata  of  shale,  sandstone,  &c.  The  series  of  strata 
which  occur  together  is  called  a  coal  field.  Coal  fields  are 
of  limited  extent,  and  the  strata  often  dip  to  a  common  centre, 
behig  often  arranged  in  basin-shaped  cavities,  which  appear  to 
have  been  originally  detached  lakes  that  were  gradually  filled 
up  by  repeated  depositions  of  carbonaceous  and  mineral  mat- 
ter. Tlie  (hfiferent  strata  over  and  under  the  beds  of  coal  are 
frequently  similar,  and  the  same  series  of  strata  is  repeated  for 
each  successive  stratum  of  coal,  as  shown  in  fig.  18.     Coals 

Fig.  18. 


Slate,  .  . 
Coal;  .  .  . 
Slate,  .     .     . 

Sandstone,  . 
Slate,  •  .  . 
Coal,    .     .     . 


Sandstone, 


are  generally  supposed  to  have  had  a  vegetahle  origin ;  and, 
when  we  consider  the  abundance  of  vegetable  remains  usually 
found  in  connexion  with  coal,  and  the  vegetable  structure 
which  the  coal  itself  sometimes  exhibits,  we  can  hardly  doubt 
as  to  its  origin.  At  most  coal  mines,  even  the  thinnest  layers 
of  slate,  when  split  off,  show  the  impressions  of  the  leaves 
and  flat  stems  of  the  various  grasses,  reeds,  and  ferns,  in  all 
their  most  delicate  parts.  The  impressions  between  the  layers 
of  slate  sometimes  give  a  perfect  representation  of  the  plant, 
as  if  the  plant  had  been  pressed  and  dried  in  a  book,  and  the 
leaves  then  opened  to  display  it. 

(2.)  The  upper  secondary  rocks  comprise  all  the  different 
formations  above  the  great  coal  formations,  to  the  upper  limit 
of  the  clialk  series.  These  rocks  are  divided  into  the  three 
following  formations.  1.  Chalk,  or  cretaceous  rocks,  includ- 
ing the  ferruginous  and  green  sand.  2.  Oolitic  rocks,  lias 
limestone,  and  lias  clay.  3,  Red  sandstone,  including  magne- 
sian  limestone.  The  red  sandstone  formation  is  characterized 
by  the  first  appearance  of  the  remains  of  the  saurian,  or  lizard- 


GEOLOGY.  177 

shaped  animals.  The  remains  of  a  number  of  species  have 
been  found,  differing  in  their  appearance  from  the  crocodile 
and  alligator,  some  of  which  must  have  been  from  60  to  120 
feet  in  length.  These  animals  appear  to  have  lived  in  salt  water, 
imlike  any  of  this  class  with  which  we  are  acquainted  at  the 
present  day,  all  of  which  belong  either  to  the  land  or  to  fresh 
water.  They  had  neither  feet  nor  fins,  but  paddles  like  the 
sea  turtle,  and  their  tails  were  long,  of  the  form  of  an  oar,  and 
fitted  to  propel  them  through  the  most  agitated  waters.  The 
oolitic  rocks  are  composed  of  various  strata  of  limestone, 
clay,  sand,  and  sandstone.  Oolite  derives  its  name  from  the 
small  globules  that  are  embedded  in  this  species  of  rock — 
some  of  the  masses  of  which  appear  composed  of  little  rounded 
globules  like  the  roes  of  fish.  These  rocks  are  remarkable 
for  the  great  variety  of  organic  remains  they  contain.  The 
animal  remains  are  those  belonging  to  the  land,  and  to  fresh 
water.  The  teeth  and  bones  of  fish  and  reptiles  are  abundant. 
The  reptiles  are  mostly  saurian  animals  and  turtles.  Among 
these  are  the  Megalo  saurus,  the  Plesio  saurus,  and  the  Iguano- 
d.on,  some  of  which  must  have  been  at  least  70  feet  in  length, 
and  of  the  height  of  an  elephant.  There  are  also  vegetuhh 
fossils  in  these  rocks, — consisting  of  arborescent  forms,  truiiks 
of  palms,  gigantic  reeds,  and  similar  vegetable  produciions, 
which  are  now  to  be  found  growing  only  in  the  torrid  zone. 

4.  The  next  division  is  the  tertiary,  which  is  considered 
as  having  been  deposited  after  the  secondary.  The  strata 
comprehended  under  this  class  consists  of  beds  of  clay,  marl, 
sand,  pudding  stones,  and  imperfectly  consolidated  limestone, 
which  appear  to  have  been  deposited  since  the  chalk  forma- 
tion. The  tertiary  deposits  contain  no  beds  of  minerals  or 
metallic  veins,  capable  of  exploration,  except  lignite  and  jet, 
which  are  used  for  fuel  and  ornament, — clay  for  pottery,  sand 
for  the  manufacture  of  glass,  pyrites  for  the  manufacture  of 
copperas  and  alum,  and  a  valuable  iron  ore  called  hydrate  of 
iron.  This  formation,  however,  abounds  with  a  vast  quantity 
of  vegetable  and  animal  remains,  sucli  as  crocodiles,  crabs, 
lobsters,  several  species  of  vertebral  fish,  and  a  vast  number 
of  testaceous  exuviae ;  so  well  preserved  as  to  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  recent  shells.  The  most  remarkable  discovery 
that  has  been  made  respecting  the  tertiary  deposits  is,  that 
many  of  them  contain  the  .bones  of  mammiferous  animals^ 
(that  is,  those  which  suckle  their  young,)  as  perfect  in  their 
organisation,  as  any  of  the  existing  species  of  land  animals; 
but  most  of  them  belong  to  genera  or  species  tlmt  are  extinct. 
These  strata  are  further  remarkable  for  presenting  the  frequent 


178  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

alternation  of  beds  containing  the  remains  of  marine  animals, 
Avith  other  beds  that  contain  the  bones  of  land  animals  or 
fresh  water  shells.  The  city  of  Paris,  in  France,  and  the 
country  around,  which  are  situated  upon  a  tertiary  deposit, 
which  rests  upon  chalk — are  remarkable  for  the  extraordinary 
oro-anic  remains  which  they  contain.  Millions  of  marine  shells 
compose  the  principal  mass.  Bones  of  marine  animals,  of 
wliich  the  genera  are  entirely  unknown,  are  found  in  certain 
parts.  Other  bones,  remarkable  for  their  vast  size,  and  of 
which  some  of  similar  genera  exist  only  in  distant  countries, 
are  found  scattered  in  the  upper  beds.  Not  only  the  remains 
of  sea  animals  and  land  quadrupeds,  but  also  tho'^e  of  birds, 
are  found  in  this  deposit,  such  as  the  duck,  the  pelican,  the 
woodcock,  the  starling,  and  the  skylark.  The  famous  locality 
of  fossil  fish  at  Monte  Bolca,  in  Italy,  is  in  tertiary  strata. 
About  105  species  have  been  found  in  those  quarries,  and  many 
of  them  are  difierent  from  any  species  known  to  exist  in  the 
neighbouring  seas,  or  even  in  any  part  of  the  earth. 

5.  The  next  distinction  of  formations  made  by  geologists 
is  DILUVIAL  and  alluvial  deposits — the  former  being  generally 
considered  as  having  been  formed  by  the  last  general  deluge, 
ar.'i  the  latter  by  currents  of  rivers  and  other  causes  now  in 
operation.  The  blocks  of  rock  and  the  beds  of  gravel  spread 
or  scattered  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  composed  of  stone, 
or  fragments  foreign  to  the  district  in  which  they  are  spread, 
and  which  frequently  cover  the  bones  of  unknown  species  of 
quadrupeds — are  called  diluvial  depositions,  that  is,  deposi- 
tions which  have  been  caused  by  a  deluge.  The  materials  of 
these  deposits  are  usually  coarse,  and  composed  of  gravel, 
pebbles,  and  blocks  of  a  great  variety  of  rocks  aggregated 
without  any  regularity.  This  sand,  soil,  or  fragments  brought 
down  by  rivers,  and  spread  along  their  banks  or  at  their 
mouths,  are  called  alluvial  depositions.  The  bones  and  skele- 
tons of  large  animals,  and  especially  the  mammolh^  are  found 
in  diluvial  gravel  in  many  countries.  In  Siberia  the  tusks  of 
the  fossil  elephant  are  found  in  the  diluvial  banks  of  almost 
every  river,  and  sometimes  in  such  abundance  that  the  ivory 
from  these  skeletons  is  an  article  of  export.  It  is  said  that 
the  skeleton  of  a  whale  lies  on  the  top  of  mountains  3000  feet 
high,  on  the  coast  of  the  Northern  ocean,  which  could  scarcely 
have  been  conveyed  to  such  an  .elevation  but  by  an  immense 
overwhelming  deluge. 

Alluvial  deposits  are  the  most  superficial  of  all  the  form- 
ations \  they  are  forming  every  day ;  they  envelope  the  re- 
mains  of  animals  that  still  exist  on  the  surfaces  they  have 


GEOLOGY, 


179 


formed,  and  they  are  also  mingled  with  the  remains  of  animals 
which  have  existed  in  recent  times.  The  alluvial  beds  taken 
as  masses  are  all  of  loose  earth,  and  are  never  covered  by 
rocky  masses ;  and  in  these  beds  chiefly  are  to  be  found  the 
remains  of  hun^an  beings  and  the  monuments  of  their  industry 
and  art.  There  is  a  constant  tendency  in  torrents,  currents, 
rivers,  tides,  winds,  and  similar  causes,  to  wear  down  the  ine- 
qualities of  the  land  and  to  deposit  the  materials  in  the  sea. 
In  this  way  deltas  have  been  formed,  such  as  the  deltas  of  the 
Nile,  the  Ganges,  the  Mississippi,  the  Danube,  and  the  Rhone. 
The  mouths  of  the  Mississippi  are  now  more  than  100  miles 
from  its  original  entrance  into  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  for 
hundreds  of  miles  above  most  of  the  land  seen  from  its  banks 
is  alluvial ;  so  that  all  the  mass  of  land  alluded  to  has  been 
formed  by  materials  carried  down  by  the  rapid  current  of  this 
mighty  river.  The  delta  of  the  Ganges  commences  220  miles 
in  a  direct  line  from  the  ocean ;  and  the  town  of  Adria,  which 
was  once  a  port  on  the  Adriatic,  is  now  20  miles  inland  ;  all 
which  vast  accumulations  are  considered  as  the  effects  of  allu- 
vial depositions. 

6.  There  is  likewise  a  species  of  rocks  distinguished  by 
geologists  by  the  title  of  volcanic  and  basaltic  rocks; 
which  owe  their  origin  to  volcanic  fire,  and  are  sometimes 
forced  up  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  action  of  subter- 
raneous heat.  The  principal  volcanic  rocks  are  basalt^  lavay 
and  greenstone.  Volcanic  rocks  occur  in  shapeless  masses, 
and  are  destitute  of  organic  remains,  hi  some  parts  of  Europe, 
as  in  Iceland,  Sicily,  and  the  country  around  Naples,  active 
volcanoes  still  exist,  which  frequently  emit  vast  quantities  of 
lava,  ashes,  and  other  species  of  matter.  But  even  in  places 
where  no  active  volcanoes  exist,  as  in  Avergne,  Velay,  and 
Vivavais,  in  France,  several  hundreds  of  conical  hills  are 
found,  with  craters  near  their  summits.  These  hills  are  com- 
posed of  materials  similar  to  those  of  active  volcanoes,  and 
streams  of  lava  may  sometimes  be  traced  proceeding  from  the 
cones  into  the  adjoining  valleys,  where  they  choke  up  the 
ancient  channels  of  rivers,  in  the  same  manner  as  some  of  the 
modern  lavas  in  Iceland  have  been  known  to  do,  the  rivers 
either  flowing  beneath,  or  cutting  out  a  passage  on  one  side  of 
the  lava.  Trap  rocks  are  related  to  volcanic,  and  are  mostly 
composed  of  horneblende  and  felspar.  The  term  trap  is  de- 
rived from  the  Gerrnan  word  trappa^  a  stair,  as  many  of  these 
rocks  occur  in  a  terrace  form,  or  like  the  steps  of  a  stair — a 
configuration  which  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  stopping 
of  large  sheets  of  lava  when  flowing,  whether  at  the  bottom 


180  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

of  the  sea  or  on  dry  land  ;  for  it  is  known  that  streams  ol'  lava 
generally  terminate  in  abrupt  precipices,  similar  to  the  beds 
constituting  the  trap  ranges.  These  rocks  are  distinguished, 
even  at  a  distance,  from  those  of  the  stratified  formations,  as 
they  occur  in  shapeless  masses,  and  form  hilly^tracts  of  great 
irregularity  of  surface,  or  in  the  form  of  walls  or  dikes  pene- 
tratfng  other  rocks,  which  they  alter  in  character  to  a  certain 
degree  at  this  point  of  contact. 

Basalt  is  of  a  black  or  bluish-gray  colour.  It  is  commonly 
fine-grained,  and  consists  of  an  intimate  admixture  of  felspar 
and  augite,  a  variety  of  horneblende,  with  some  oxide  of 
iron.  Many  of  the  Western  islands  of  Scotland  are  wholly 
or  almost  composed  of  basalt.  The  island  of  Stafa  is  a 
complete  mass  of  basalt.  It  is  about  two  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  is  surrounded  on  every  side  by  steep  cliffs,  70 
feet  high,  formed  of  clusters  of  angular  columns,  containing 
from  5  to  7  sides  each.  Fingal's  Cave  is  in  the  S.  E.  corner  of 
the  island,  and  presents  a  magnificent  chasm,  42  feet  wide,  and 
227  in  length.  The  roof,  which  is  100  feet  high  at  the 
e-n trance,  gradually  diminishes  to  50,  and  is  composed  of  the 
projecting  extremities  of  basaltic  pillars,  and  the  base  of  a 
causeway  of  the  same  materials.  The  Giant'^s  Causeioay^  in 
the  county  of  Antrim,  in  Ireland,  is  another  striking  specimen 
of  basaltic  columns.  It  consists  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
pentagonal  and  hexagonal  columns  (that  is,  columns  of  5  and 
6  sides)  varying  from  1  to  5  feet  in  thickness,  and  from  20  to 
200  feet  in  height.  The  district  in  which  this  remarkable 
formation  occurs  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Bann,  and 
comprehends  an  area  of  800  square  miles.  Throughout  this 
area,  the  basalt  is  found  coping  all  the  eminences,  and  con- 
stituting an  overlying  bed  of  igneous  rocks,  at  least  500  feet 
in  thickness.  The  greatest  mass  of  basalt  yet  known  occurs 
in  the  province  of  Deccan  in  India,  where  it  constitutes  the 
surface  over  an  area  of  many  thousand  square  miles. 

Having  given  the  above  brief  sketches  of  the  different  orders 
of  stratification,  I  shall  conclude  this  department  of  the  subject, 
by  a  {qv^  general  statements  respecting  the  organic  remains 
embedded  in  the  several  formations  to  which  we  have  ad- 
verted. 

1.  Organic  remains  are  not  found  promiscuously  scattered 
through  the  rocks,  but  each  formation  has  its  peculiar  group 
of  animals  and  plants ;  and  on  comparing  together  the  larger 
groups  of  strata,  we  find  scarcely  any  organic  remains  com- 
mon to  any  two  of  them.  These  fossil  animals  and  plants  are 
found  together  in  groups,  very  much  as  living  plants  and  ani- 


GEOLOGY.  181 

nials  are — different  groups  occupying  different  portions  of  the 
surface  of  the  eartli  and  of  tlie  ocean.  Hence  it  is  concluded, 
that  these  remains  were  once  living  plants  and  animals,  which, 
in  different  periods,  occupied  the  ocean  and  the  dry  land, 
grouped  together  as  we  now  find  them,  and  that,  as  they  died, 
they  became  enveloped  in  rock,  near  the  places  where  they 
passed  their  existence. 

2.  Some  of  the  formations  and  deposits  to  which  we  have 
alluded,  particularly  the  mountain  limestone^  consist  almost 
entirely  of  the  shells  and  coralline  productions  of  sea  animals, 
and  this  formation  is  often  a  thousand  or  more  feet  in  thick- 
ness, and  many  miles  in  length  and  breadth.  In  what  are 
termed  the  sUurian  formations  is  found  a  long  succession  of 
strata  many  thousand  feet  in  thickness,  and  embedding  not 
fewer  than  375  species  belonging  to  the  animal  kingdom. 

3.  It  is  considered  an  established  fact,  that  of  more  than 
3000  species  of  plants  and  animals  that  are  found  in  a  fossil 
state  in  the  secondary  rocks,  not  a  single  species  corresponds 
with  any  now  living  on  the  globe  ;  and  even  out  of  3000 
fossil  species  in  the  tertiary  formation  less  than  600  are 
identical  with  living  species.  In  short,  in  all  the  different 
formations,  till  we  come  to  the  uppermost  and  the  newest,  the 
thousand  species  they  contain  are  all  different  from  any  in  the 
now  existing  creation,  though  possessing  family  analogies. 

4.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  notwithstanding  the  great 
variety  of  fossils  observed  in  the  early  formations,  the  remains 
of  man  are  not  to  be  found  in  these  formations.  The  remains 
of  human  beings  and  the  vestiges  of  the  arts  and  operations  of 
man  are  discovered  only  in  or  upon  those  earthly  masses 
which  are  demonstrably  posterior  to  all  regular  geological  de- 
posits— or,  the  diluvial  and  alluvial  formations — and  \VA^^PY 
circumstances,  indicating  the  human  species  to  have  been 
among  the  recent  productions  of  the  Creator's  power,  and 
that  man  was  created  at  a  period  posterior  to  those  great 
changes  and  convulsions  which  destroyed  so  many  millions 
of  millions  of  animated  beings.  Had  this  not  been  the  case, 
it  IS  almost  certain  that  numerous  remains  of  the  human  species 
would  have  been  found  in  the  early  formations. 

"  The  phenomena  of  geology  show  that  the  original  forma- 
tion of  the  rocks  has  been  accompanied,  in  nearly  all  its  stages, 
by  a  process  of  waste,  decay,  and  recomposition.  The  rocks, 
as  they  were  successively  deposited,  were  acted  upon  by  air 
and  water,  heat,  &c.,  broken  into  fragments  or  worn  down 
into  grains  out  of  which  new  strata  were  formed.  Even  the 
newer  secondary  rocks,  since  their  consolidation,  have  been 

16 


182  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

subject  to  great  changes,  of  which  very  distinct  monuments 
remain.  Thus,  we  have  single  mountains,  which  from  their 
structure  can  be  considered  only  as  remnants  of  great  forma- 
tions, or  of  great  continents  no  longer  in  existence.  Mount 
Meisner,  in  Hesse,  six  miles  long,  and  three  br&ad,  rises  about 
1800  feet  above  its  base,  and  2100  above  the  sea,  overtopping 
all  the  neighbouring  hills  for  40  or  50  miles  round.  The 
lowest  part  of  the  mountain  consists  of  the  same  shell,  lime- 
stone, and  sandstone,  which  exist  in  the  adjacent  country. 
Above  these  are,  first,  a  bed  of  sand,  then  a  bed  of  fossil  wood 
100  feet  thick  at  some  points,  and  the  whole  is  covered  by  a 
m^ss  of  basalt,  500  feet  in  height.  On  considering  these  facts, 
it  is  impossible  to  avoid  concluding,  that  this  mountain,  which 
now  overtops  the  neighbouring  country,  occupied  at  one  time 
the  bottom  of  a  cavity  in  the  midst  of  higher  lands.  The  vast 
mass  of  fossil  wood  could  not  all  have  grown  there,  but  must 
have  been  transported  by  water  from  a  more  elevated  surface, 
and  lodged  in  what  was  then  a  hollow.  The  basalt  which 
covers  the  wood  must  also  have  flowed  in  a  current  from  a 
higher  site ;  but  the  soil  over  which  the  basalt  and  the  wood 
passed,  has  been  swept  away,  leaving  this  mountain  as  a 
solitary  memorial  to  attest  its  existence.  Thus  also  on  the 
side  of  Mount  Jura,  next  the  Alps,  where  no  other  mountain 
interposes,  there  are  found  vast  blocks  of  granite  (some  of 
them  of  1000  cubic  yards)  at  the  height  of  more  than  2000 
feet  above  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  These  blocks  are  foreign  to 
the  rocks  among  which  they  lie,  and  have  evidently  come 
from  the  opposite  chain  of  the  Alps ;  but  the  land  which 
constituted  the  inclined  plane  over  which  they  were  rolled  or 
transported,  has  been  worn  away,  and  the  valley  of  Lower 
Switzerland,  with  its  lakes,  now  occupies  its  place.  Trans- 
ported masses  of  primitive  rocks  of  the  same  description  are 
found  scattered  over  the  north  of  Germany,  which  Von  Buch 
ascertained,  by  their  characters,  to  belong  to  the  mountains  of 
Scandinavia;  and  which  therefore  carry  us  back  to  a  period 
when  an  elevated  continent  occupying  the  basin  of  the  Baltic, 
connected  Saxony  w^ith  Norway.* 

The  production  of  a  bed  for  vegetation  is  effected  by  the 
decomposition  of  rocks.  This  decomposition  is  effected  by 
the  expansion  of  water  in  pores  or  the  fissures  of  rocks,  by 
heat  or  congelation — by  the  solvent  power  of  moisture — and 
by  electricity,  which  is  known  to  be  a  powerful  agent  of  de- 
composition.    As  soon  as  the  rock  begins  to  be  softened,  the 

*  Supplement  to  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  6th  edit.,  vol.  vi. 


GEOLOGY.  183 

seeds  of  lichens^  which  are  constantly  floating  in  the  air,  make 
it  their  resting  place.  Their  generations  occupy  it  till  a  finely 
divided  earth  is  formed,  which  becomes  capable  of  supporting 
mosses  and  heath;  acted  upon  by  light  and  heat,  these  plants 
imbibe  the  dew,  and  convert  constituent  parts  of  the  air  into 
nouri.shment.  Their  death  and  decay  afibrd  food  for  a  more 
perfect  species  of  vegetable  ;  and  at  length  a  mould  is  formed, 
in  which  even  the  trees  of  the  forest  can  fix  their  roots,  and 
which  is  capable  of  rewarding  the  labours  of  the  cultivator. 
The  decomposition  of  rock  tends  to  the  renovation  of  soils, 
as  well  as  their  cultivation.  Finely  divided  matter  is  carried 
by  rivers  from  the  higher  districts  to  the  low  countries,  and 
alluvial  lands  are  usually  extremely  fertile.  By  these  opera- 
tions, the  quantity  of  habitable  surface  is  constantly  increased ; 
precipitous  cliffs  are  gradually  made  gentle  slopes,  lakes  are 
filled  up,  and  islands  are  formed  at  the  mouths  of  great 
rivers ;  so  that,  as  the  world  grows  older,  its  capacity  for 
containing  an  increased  number  of  inhabitants  is  gradually  en- 
larging. 

Of  all  the  memorials  of  the  past  history  of  our  globe,  the 
most  interesting  are  those  myriads  of  remains  of  organized 
bodies  which  exist  in  the  interior  of  its  outer  crusts.  In  these, 
we  find  traces  of  innumerable  orders  of  beings  existing  under 
different  circumstances,  succeeding  one  another  at  distant 
epoclis,  and  varying  through  multiplied  changes  of  form. 
"  If  we  examine  the  secondary  rocks,  beginning  with  the  most 
ancient,  the  first  organic  remains  which  present  themselves, 
are  those  of  aquatic  plants  and  large  reeds,  but  of  species  dif- 
ferent from  ours.  To  these  succeed  madrepores,  encrenites, 
and  other  aquatic  zoophites,  living  beings  of  the  simplest 
forms,  which  remain  attached  to  one  spot,  and  partake,  in 
some  degree,  of  the  nature  of  vegetables.  Posterior  to  these, 
are  ammonites,  and  other  moUusci,  still  very  simple  in  their 
forms,  and  entirely  different  from  any  animals  now  known. 
After  these,  some  fishes  appear;  and  plants,  consisting  of 
bamboos  and  ferns,  increase,  but  still  different  fro-m  those 
which  exist.  In  the  next  period,  along  with  an  increasing 
number  of  extinct  species  of  shells  and  fishes,  we  meet  with 
amphibious  and  viviparous  quadrupeds,  such  as  crocodiles 
and  tortoises,  and  some  reptiles,  as  serpents,  which  show 
that  dry  land  now  existed.  As  we  approach  the  newest  of 
the  solid  rock  formation,  we  find  lamantins,  phocae,  and  other 
cetaceous  and  mammiferous  sea  animals,  M-ith  some  birds. 
And  in  the  newest  of  these  formations,  we  find  the  remains 
of  herbiferous  land  animals  of  extinct  species,  the  paleotherium, 


184  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOrHER. 

anaplolhei-ium,  Stc.,aiicl  of  birds,  with  some  fresh-water  shells. 
Ill  the  h)west  beds  of  loose  soil,  and  in  peat  bogs,  are  found 
the  remains  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus,  elk, 
&c.,  of  different  species  from  those  which  now  exist,  but  be- 
lonoino-  to  the  same  genera.  Lastly,  the  bones  of  the  species 
which  are  apparently  the  same  with  those  now  existing  alive, 
are  never  found  except  in  the  very  latest  alluvial  depositions, 
or  those  wliich  are  either  formed  in  the  sides  of  rivers,  the 
bottoms  of  ancient  lakes  and  marshes  now  dried  up,  in  peat 
beds,  in  the  fissures  and  caverns  of  certain  rocks,  or  at  small 
depths  below  the  present  surface,  in  places  where  they  may 
have  been  overwhelmed  by  debris,  or  even  buried  by  man. 
Human  bones  are  never  found  except  among  those  of  animal 
species  now  living,  and  in  situations  which  show  that  they 
have  been,  comparatively  speaking,  recently  deposited."* 

Numerous  species  of  animals  have  been  found  embedded 
in  the  secondary  strata — no  living  examples  of  which  are 
now  to  be  found  in  any  quarter  of  the  globe.  Among  the 
most  remarkable  of  these  are  the  following: — l.'The  mam- 
moth^ which  bears  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  elephant,  but 
is  much  larger,  and  differs  considerably  in  the  size  and  form 
of  the  tusks,  jaws,  and  grinders.  The  fossil  remains  of  this 
animal  are  more  abundant  in  Siberia  than  in  other  countries ; 
there  being  scarcely  a  spot,  from  the  river  Don  to  Kamtschatka, 
in  which  they  have  not  been  found.  Not  only  single  bones 
and  perfect  skeletons  of  this  animal  are  frequently  to  be  met 
with  ;  but,  in  a  late  instance,  the  whole  animal  was  found 
preserved  in  ice.  This  animal  was  discovered  on  the  banks 
of  the  Frozen  ocean,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Jena,  in  1799 ; 
and  in  1805,  Mr.  Adams  got  it  conveyed  over  a  space  of  7000 
miles  to  Petersburg,  where  it  is  deposited  in  the  Museum. 
The  flesh,  skin,  and  hair,  were  completely  preserved,  and 
even  the  eyes  were  entire.  It  was  provided  with  a  long  mane, 
and  the  body  was  covered  with  hair.  The  hair  was  of  differ- 
ent qualities.  There  were  stiff  black  bristles  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  inches  long,  and  these  belonged  to  the  tail,  mane,  and 
ears.  Other  bristles  were  from  nine  to  ten  inches  long,  and 
of  a  brown  colour ;  and  besides  these,  there  was  a  coarse 
wool,  from  four  to  five  inches  long,  of  a  pale  yellow  colour. 
This  mammoth  was  a  male;  it  measured  nine  feet  four  inches 
in  iieight,  and  was  sixteen  feet  four  inches  long,  without  in- 
chiding  the  tusks.  The  tusks,  measuring  along  the  curve,  are 
nine  feet  six  inches;  and  the  two  together  weigh  360  lbs. 

*  Supp.  to  Encyc.  Brit.,  vol.  vi. 


GEOLOGY.  185 

avoirdupois.  The  head  alone,  without  the  tusks,  weighs  414 
lbs.  avoirdupois.  The  remains  of  this  animal  have  been  found 
likewise  in  Iceland,  Norway,  Scotland,  England,  and  in  many 
places  through  the  continent  onward  to  the  Arctic  ocean. 

2.  The  megatherium.  A  complete  skeleton  of  this  colossal 
species  was  found  in  diluvial  soil  near  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
sent  to  Madrid.  The  specimen  is  fourteen  feet  long,  and  seven 
Spanish  feet  in  height. 

3.  The  great  mastodon  of  the  Ohio.  This  species  appears 
to  have  been  as  tall  as  the  elephant,  but  with  longer  and 
thicker  limbs.  It  had  tusks  like  the  elephant,  and  appears  to 
have  lived  on  roots.  Its  remains  abound  in  America,  parti- 
cularly on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio. 

Fig.  19. 


4.  The  tapir^  which  also  abounds  in  America.  The  one 
named  gigantic  tapir,  is  about  eighteen  feet  long,  and  twelve 
feet  high. 

5.  The  Irish  elk,  or  elk  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  This  gigan- 
tic species,  now  apparently  extinct,  occurs  in  a  fossil  state,  in 
Ireland,  Isle  of  Man,  England,  Germany,  and  France.  The 
most  perfect  specimen  of  this  species,  which  was  found  in  the 
Isle  of  Man,  may  he  seen  in  the  Museum  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  It  is  six  feet  high,  nine  feet  long,  and  in  height, 
to  the  tip  of  the  right  horn,  nine  feet  seven  and  a  half 
inches.* 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  acts  which  the  researches  of  modern 
geology  have  disclosed.  Let  us  now  consider  what  are  the 
conclusions  which  have  been  deduced  from  them. 

One  of  the  grand  conclusions  which  has  been  deduced  by 

*  An  engraving  of  this  skeleton  may  be  seen  in  Vol.  6th  of  Supp.  to 
Encyc.  Brit.,  6th  edit. 

16* 


186  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER, 

modern  geologists — even  by  those  who  acknowledge  tlie  divi- 
nity of  the  Christian  revelation  is,  that  the  materials  of  which 
our  globe  is  composed  are  of  very  high  antiquity^  and  were 
brought  into  existence  long  before  the  race  of  Adatn  was 
placed  upon  the  earth.  The  exact  period  of  years  which  any 
of  these  materials  may  have  existed,  or  any  approximation  to 
it,  no  geologist  has  yet  undertaken  to  determine,  nor  is  it 
likely  that  the  problem  will  every  be  satisfactorily  solved.  In 
reference  to  some  of  the  coal  strata,  Mr.  Macculloch,  in  his 
'^System  of  Geology,"  states  that  it  would  be  even  too  short  a 
period  "  were  we  to  allow  200,000  years  for  the  production 
of  the  coal  mines  of  Newcastle  w^ith  all  its  rocky  strata,"  not 
including  the  subsequent  formations  up  to  the  present  condi- 
tion of  the  earth.  Mr.  Maclaren,  in  his  "  Geology  of  Fife  and 
the  Lothians,"  estimates  a  single  period  of  volcanic  quiescence, 
during  which  strata  of  coal,  shale,  sandstone,  and  limestone 
were  deposited  over  the  side  of  Arthur's  seat,  a  basaltic  hill 
in  the  vicinity  of  Edinburgh — at  five  hundred  thousand  years. 
Mr.  Babbage,  when  referring  to  the  tertiary  class  of  forma- 
tions, regards  it  as  a  truth,  supported  by  irresistible  evidence, 
"that  the  formation  even  of  those  strata  which  are  nearest 
the  surface,  must  have  occupied  vast  periods,  probably  millions 
of  years."*  The  Rev.  Professor  Sedgwick,  when  adverting 
to  the  process  of  forming  deposits,  says,  that  "  a  section  of  a 
few  perpendicular  feet  indicates  a  very  long  lapse  of  time,"  so 
that  in  such  processes  "many  thousands  of  years  sink  into  a 
trilling  period."  In  short,  the  most  respectable  modern  geo- 
logists when  alluding  to  this  point,  use  such  expressions  as 
the  following — "immense  periods  of  time" — "a  duration  to 
M'hicli  we  dare  not  assign  a  boundary" — "undefined  ages" — 
"along  succession  of  monuments,  for  the  production  of  each  of 
which  there  may  have  been  required  a  thousand  ages" — "  suc- 
cessions of  events,  where  the  language  of  nature  signifies  mil- 
lions of  years" — "a  duration  which  it  would  be  presumptuous 
to  put  into  an  estimate  of  years  and  centuries" — with  many 
other  expressions  of  a  similar  import.  Whether  such  strong 
and  unlimited  expressions  be  warranted  by  the  nature  of  the 
processes  alluded  to,  I  do  not  take  upon  me  to  determine. 

2.  Another  conclusion,  which  has  been  deduced  from  the 
above  stated  facts,  is,  that  during  the  changes  which  the  globe 
has  undergone,  since  its  original  production  out  of  nothing, 
several  destructions  and  subsequent  new  creations  of  animals 
and  2>lants  have  taken  place,  perhaps  at  very  different  and  very 

*  Babbage's  Ninth  Bridgewater  Treatise. 


GEOLOGY.  187 

distant  epochs.  The  greater  part  of  geologists  conchide,  that 
four  or  five  distinct  epochs  of  destruction  and  renewal  m;iy 
be  traced  in  the  organic  remains  contained  in  the  different 
strata;  in  other  words,  that  whole  groups  have  been  swept  at 
once  from  existence  by  some  powerful  catastrophe,  and  their 
places  supplied  by  other  races,  called  into  existence  by  the 
creating  energy  of  the  Almighty.  The  records  of  geology 
seem  to  testify  that  such  was  the  condition  of  the  globe,  in 
those  early  periods,  as  to  temperature  and  other  circumstances, 
that  our  present  races  of  animals  could  not  have  then  existed, 
and  that  such  was  the  nature  and  constitution  of  these  prime- 
val beings,  that  they  could  not  exist  in  the  present  constitution 
and  circumstances  of  our  globe ;  their  natures  being  adapted 
to  the  different  conditions  of  the  earth,  at  different  periods  of 
its  existence. 

3.  A  third  conclusion  is,  that  the  successive  changes^  to 
which  our  globe  has  been  subjected^  have  been  im-provemerits  in 
its  condition  as  a  habitable  worlds  that  there  has  been  a  cor- 
respondent advance  towards  perfection  in  the  natures  of  the 
animals  and  plants  which  have  been  placed  upon  its  surface; 
and  that  the  Deity,  during  this  long  period  of  successive 
changes,  was  gradually  fitting  up  this  loorid  for  the  ultimate 
residence  of  mora.1  and  intellectual  beings,  such  as  the  human 
species  that  now  inhabit  it.  For  it  appears  next  to  certain  that 
the  race  of  man  could  not  have  inhabited  this  globe  in  any  of 
the  past  periods  of  its  duration,  prior  to  that  era  in  whicli  he 
was  placed  upon  it.  It  would  appear  that  the  Deity  did  not 
tliink  proper  to  prepare  a  suitable  habitation  for  man  by  a 
miracle,  or  a  direct  interposition  of  his  Almighty  energy,  but 
by  the  agency  of  those  physical  laws  which  he  had  impressed 
upon  the  elementary  principles  of  the  material  universe.  And 
in  order  that  matter  might  not  exist  in  vain,  myriads  of  beings 
were  brought  into  existence,  under  the  direction  of  Infinite 
Wisdom,  endowed  with  faculties  and  natures  adapted  to  those 
peculiar  states  of  the  terraqueous  globe  in  which  they  were 
to  pass  their  existence. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  facts  connected  with  the  constitution 
of  our  globe,  and  the  conclusions  which  have  been  deduced 
from  them.  It  now  remains  that  we  inquire  into  their  accord- 
ance with  the  records  of  the  sacred  history. 

It  has  been  too  frequently  taken  for  granted  by  theologians 
and  commentators,  that  the  whole  system  of  the  material  uni- 
verse was  brouglit  into  existence  within  the  period  of  6000 
years  from  the  present  time ;  and  hence,  some  of  them  who 


183  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

have  been  anxious  to  reconcile  the  Mosaic  and  the  geological 
chronoloo'ies,  have  attempted  to  show  that  all  the  formations 
and  chano-es  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  to  which  we  have  al- 
luded, might  have  been  effected  within  the  period  of  6000  years, 
and  particularly  during  the  continuance  of  the  deluge  in  the 
days  of  Noah.  Some  of  them  have  insinuated  that  the  coral- 
line recfs^  which  exhibit  vast  accumulations  of  calcareous 
matter,  and  which  abound  on  the  coast  of  New  Holland,  and 
among  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  ocean,  have  been  all  formed 
since  the  present  order  of  things  commenced  ;  and  therefore 
that  all  the  other  formations  to  which  we  have  alluded,  even 
the  oldest,  may  have  been  formed  within  the  same  period.  It 
has  also  been  insinuated,  that  it  appears  derogatory  to  the 
wisdom  and  power  of  the  Creator  to  suppose,  that  for  thou- 
sands of  years  the  earth  should  have  been  occupied  merely 
with  vegetables  and  animals  of  the  lowest  orders,  and  that 
many  species  of  each  class  were  alternately  created,  and  per- 
mitted to  retire  out  of  existence. 

But  such  positions  are  now  considered  as  absolutely  un- 
tenable by  all  the  most  scientific  and  respectable  geologists  of 
modern  times,  as  being  inconsistent  with  facts  which  are  every 
where  perceptible  in  the  strata  of  our  globe.  As  to  the  de- 
signs which  the  Almighty  had  in  view,  in  replenishing  the 
earth  for  so  long  a  period  of  time,  chiefly  with  the  inferior 
ranks  of  existence,  and  again  permitting  them  to  perish,  it  be- 
comes us  to  speak  with  reverence  and  humility,  as  beings 
whose  faculties  are  limited,  and  altogether  inadequate  to  trace 
the  inscrutable  paths  of  the  Divinity,  or  to  investigate  the 
reasons  of  every  part  of  his  procedure.  We  cannot,  in  many 
cases,  decide  as  to  what  is  consistent  or  inconsistent  with  the 
attributes  of  the  Almighty  ;  and  in  the  present  case,  as  w^ell  as 
in  many  others,  'we  must  admit  that  the  operations  of  the 
Deity  are  unsearchable,  and  "  his  ways  past  finding  out." 
"Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  the  secrets  of  God  }  Canst 
thou  find  out  the  designs  of  the  Almighty  }  they  are  as  high 
as  the  heavens,  deeper  than  hades ;  the  measure  thereof  is 
longer  than  the  earth  and  broader  than  the  sea.*"  But  this 
we  know,  that,  in  consequence  of  the  previous  revolutions 
which  our  globe  had  undergone,  it  was  prepared  for  being  a 
suitable  habitation  for  the  human  species,  and  for  the  other 
ranks  of  animated  nature  that  now  possess  it;  and  although 
some  portions  of  it  present  the  appearance  of  desolation  and 
dij^arrangement,  yet  were  man,  its  chief  inhabitant,  renovated 
in  the  spirit  of  his  mind,  and  found  acting  on  the  moral  princi- 
ples of  Christianity,  in  the  capacity  of  communities  and  nations, 


^  GEOLOGY.  189 

it  might  soon  be  cultivated  and  renovated  throughout  all  its 
extent,  so  as  to  present  the  aspect  of  a  terrestrial  paradise,  and 
to  shine  forth  with  all  the  beauties  of  Eden. 

But,  to  come  more  particularly  to  the  subject  in  hand.  ETad 
Moses,  in  his  history  of  the  creation,  positively  declared  that 
every  portion  of  the  material  world  was  created  out  of  nothing, 
within  sixteen  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  the  period  of  the 
deluge,  or  about  six  thousand  years  ago,  it  would  be  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  reconcile  the  facts  of  geology  with  the 
Mosaic  history.  But  no  such  position  is  to  be  found  either 
in  the  writings  of  Moses  or  throughout  any  other  portion  of 
sacred  Scripture.  For  the  illustration  of  this  point,  it  may  be 
proper  for  a  little  to  consider  the  meaning  and  import  of  the 
first  verse  of  the  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  :  "  In  the  heghi' 
ning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth?'^ 

This  proposition  is  to  be  considered  as  a  preface  to  the  fol- 
lowing narrative  of  the  arrangements  connected  with  our  ter- 
restrial system,  and,  indeed,  to  the  whole  of  Divine  revelation  ; 
and  a  more  comprehensive,  emphatic,  and  appropriate  intro- 
duction can  scarcely  be  conceived.  By  the  heavens  and  the 
earthy  we  are  here  undoubtedly  to  understand  the  whole 
frame  of  the  material  universe,  with  all  the  bodies  it  contains, 
wherever  existing  throughout  immensity  —  whetiier  suns, 
planets,  comets,  nebulae,  or  whatever  else  exists  throughout 
the  regions  of  boundless  space.  All  the  bodies  comprehended 
under  this  general  expression  are  here  said  to  have  been  created^ 
tliat  is,  brought  from  nothing  into  existence  by  the  energy 
of  an  eternal  and  omnipotent  Agent.  The  original  Hebrew 
word,  {^"1^.  Bara^  does  not  indeed  necessarily  convey  this 
idea,  as  it  most  frequently  signifies  "  to  produce  something 
new  or  wonderful,"  or  "  to  arrange,  to  renovate,  or  new- 
model"  something  which  was  previously  in  existence.  It  is 
a  matter  of  rational  inference,  however,  and  strictly  accordant 
with  just  philosophical  principles,  that  the  material  universe 
was  created  out  of  nothing.  It  is  such  an  inference  as  cannot 
be  resisted  without  doing  violence  to  the  fundamental  laws  of 
human  belief.  This  magnificent  frame  of  the  universe  is  here 
said  to  have  been  brought  into  existence  by  God — the  God  of 
Israel,  the  self-existent  and  eternal  Jehovah.  This  declaration 
was  intended  to  teach  the  Israelites,  and  all  others,  that  the 
material  world,  as  to  its  original  atoms,  did  not  arise  without 
a  cause,  or  out  of  pre-existent  materials  ;  that  the  beautiful 
order  it  now  exhibits  did  not  originate  from  the  fortuitous 
concourse  of  atoms,  as  some  heathen  philosophers  imagined, 
and  that  it  did  not  derive  its  existence  from  any  of  the  gods 


190  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

of  the  nations,  as  some  of  their  blinded  worsliippers  foolishly 
iinafrlned.  In  opposition  to  all  such  chimerical,  absurd,  and 
atheistical  notions,  Moses  declares,  "  In  the  beginning  God"' — 
the  God  of  Israel — "  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth."  As 
if  he  had  said,  ^^That  God  who  delivered  you  from  the  land 
of  Egvpt,  after  having  displayed  so  many  signs  and  wonders ; 
who  divided  the  waters  of  the  Red  sea  before  you,  and  who 
appeared  in  awful  majesty  at  Mount  Sinai ;  that  God  whom 
you  are  commanded  to  worship,  and  whose  laws  you  are 
bound  to  obey — is  the  Great  Being  who  reared  that  wonder- 
ful fabric  of  heaven  and  earth  which  your  eyes  behold." 

The  yeriod  when  this  astonishing  effect  was  produced  is 
also  here  declared,  "  In  the.  heginmngP  Upon  a  proper  con- 
ception of  the  meaning  of  this  expression  depends,  in  a  great 
measure,  the  reconciliation  of  the  geological  and  the  Mosaic 
chronology.  The  phrase  here  stated,  '^  in  the  beginning,"  is 
nsed  to  denote  the  commencement  of  an  era,  or  of  a  series  of 
successive  events.  It  evidently  implies  that,  at  what  period 
soever  in  the  long  lapse  of  past  duration,  any  part  of  the  ma- 
terial creation  was  brought  into  existence,  it  derived  that  ex- 
istence from  the  self-existent  and  eternal  Divinity.  But  no 
specific  period  is  here  stated.  Had  Moses  expressly  told  his 
readers  that  this  period,  when  the  first  materials  of  creation 
were  brought  into  existence,  M'as  about  twenty-five  hundred 
years  from  the  time  in  which  he  wrote,  then  there  would 
have  been  an  almost  insuperable  difficulty  in  reconciling  the 
discoveries  of  geology  with  such  a  statement.  But  no  such 
assertion,  either  directly  or  by  implication,  is  to  be  found 
throughout  the  whole  ran^e  of  Divine  revelation.  Ten  thou- 
sands  of  years,  or  even  millions  of  ages,  may  have  elapsed 
since  the  first  portions  of  matter  were  created,  or  previous 
to  what  is  termed  the  first  day's  work,  in  the  arrangements 
of  our  globe, — for  any  thing  that  Scripture  asserts  to  the  con- 
trary. No  limit  is  fixed  to  the  time  which  may  have  elapsed 
between  the  period,  when  the  component  materials  of  our 
globe  were  created,  and  the  period  when  it  began  to  be  re- 
duced into  the  order  in  which  we  now  behold  it;  and  no  in- 
formation is  given  as  to  the  events  which  may  have  occurred 
during  this  interval.  For  it  appears  to  have  been  the  chief 
design  of  the  sacred  historian  to  give  a  narration  of  those 
events  which  were  introductory  to  the  placing  of  man  upon 
the  earth.  And,  in  this  point  of  view,  it  is  important  to  re- 
mark, that  the  passage  before  us  is  entirely  independent  of  the 
narrative  of  the  six  days^  work  which  follows,  and  is  to  be 
considered  simply  as  a  general  and  most  important  truth,  form- 


GEOLOGY. 


191 


ing  an  appropriate  introduction  both  to  the  following  narra- 
tive, and  to  the  whole  system  of  revelation. 

It  is  therefore  to  be  regretted  that  certain  theologians  should 
still  j)ersist  in  maintaining  that  the  whole  material  creation 
must  be  limited  to  a  period  within  6000  years  from  this  date, 
when  Scripture  is  silent  on  this  point;  for  in  so  doing  they 
put  an  argument  into  the  hands  of  the  philosophical  infidel, 
which  it  is  in  his  power  to  wield  against  the  truth  and  autho- 
rity of  revelation. 

Jf  the  propriety  of  the  explanation  now  given  be  admitted, 
then  it  completely  removes  every  objection  against  the  Mosaic 
record,  derived  from  the  supposed  antiquity  of  the  earth.  Al- 
though it  could  be  proved  that  some  of  tlie  strata  of  our  globe 
were  formed  millions  of  ages  ago;  although  we  should  con- 
ceive what  is  neither  impossible,  nor  altogether  improbable — 
that  our  globe,  in  another  form,  has  been  the  abode,  for  thou- 
sands of  ages,  of  intellectual  beings  analogous  to  man,  wlio 
are  now  transported  to  another  region  of  creation — or  that  it 
has  been  the  habitation  of  numerous  and  diversified  races  both  of 
sentient  and  intellectual  natures,  and  that  millions  of  millions 
of  ages  have  rolled  on  since  the  Creator  put  forth  his  omni- 
potent energy,  and  since  such  stupendous  revolutions  com- 
menced— neither  of  such  views  is  in  the  least  discordant  with 
any  doctrine  or  fact  recorded  in  the  sacred  oracles.  The 
Psalmist  declares  in  reference  to  creation,  when  addressing  the 
Almighty,  "  Of  old  hast  thou  laid  the  foundation  of  the  earth, 
and  the  heavens  are  the  works  of  thy  hands ;"  and  the  apostle 
Paul  declares,  "  Thou  Lord,  l^  the  begiNxXing,  hast  laid  tlie 
foundations  of  the  earth."  But  no  specific  period  is  stated  here, 
or  in  any  other  portion  of  Scripture  ;  and  the  expression  of  old 
is  not  only  correspondent  with  what  we  have  now  stated, 
but  seems  to  imply  the  idea  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the  earth. 

The  circumstance  now  adverted  to — that  Moses  specifies  no 
definite  period  as  the  commencement  of  the  material  creation 
— 1  consider  as  a  corroborative  argument  for  the  truth  of  Di- 
vine revelation.  Had  he  written  at  random,  or  from  vague 
tradition,  or  had  he  intended  merely  to  give  play  to  an  exube- 
rant fancy,  in  describing  what  no  uninspired  mortal  could  ever 
have  known — it  is  not  likely  he  would  have  used  language  so 
cautious  and  appropriate,  as  not  to  have  interfered  with  any 
subsequent  discoveries  that  might  be  made  in  the  constitution 
of  the  material  universe.  Among  all  the  cosmogonies  which 
have  been  composed  by  heathen  writers,  either  from  tradition 
or  from  their  own  fancies,  there  is  not  one  which  accords  with 
the  discoveries  of  modern  times ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they 


192  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

all  contain  statements  in  direct  opposition  to  facts  which  are 
known  to  exist  in  the  material  system.  But  the  inspired  writers 
^vere — perhaps  unconscious  to  themselves — directed  to  use 
such  languaore  as,  when  rightly  interpreted,  would  be  quite 
consistent  with  all  the  views  and  discoveries  that  might  be 
opened  of  the  works  of  God  to  the  latest  generations. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  some  who  cannot  be  persuaded  to 
a:lmit  the  notion  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the  earth,  that  the 
rocks,  W'ith  all  the  fossil  petrifactions  they  contain,  were  cre- 
ated just  as  we  find  them,  in  a  moment  of  time.  "  The  Divine 
Being,"  they  affirm,  "might  as  easily  have  made  matter  to  as- 
sume the  form  of  a  shell,  a  fish,  a  lizard,  or  a  w^terworn 
pebble,  such  as  we  find  in  these  rocks,  as  of  any  other  shape 
or  structure."  To  all  who  have  bestowed  the  least  attention 
on  the  strata  of  the  earth  and  their  fossil  remains,  such  state- 
ments and  reasoning  must  appear  foolish  and  absurd  in  the 
highest  degree.  To  use  the  words  of  Professor  Silliman  : 
•'  We  will  not  inquire  wiiether  Almighty  Power  inserted  plants 
and  animals  in  mineral  masses,  and  was  thus  exerted  in  work- 
ing a  long  series  of  useless  miracles  without  design  or  end, 
and  therefore  incredible.  The  man  who  can  believe,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  Iguanodon,  with  his  gigantic  form,  70  feet  in 
length,  10  in  height,  and  15  in  girth,  was  created  in  the  midst 
of  consolidated  sandstone,  and  placed  down  1000  or  1200  feet 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in  a  rock  composed  of  ruins 
and  fragments,  and  containing  vegetables,  shells,  fish,  and 
rolled  pebbles — such  a  man  can  believe  any  thing,  with  or 
without  evidence.  If  there  be  any  such  persons,  we  must 
leave  them  to  their  own  reflections,  since  they  cannot  be  influ- 
eaced  by  reason  and  sound  argument;  with  them  we  can  sus- 
tain no  discussion,  for  there  is  no  common  ground  on  which 
we  can  meet.  " 

But  why,  I  would  ask,  should  the  idea  of  the  high  antiquity 
of  the  earth  frighten  any  persons  from  acquiescing  in  it,  when 
it  is  not  in  the  least  repugnant  to  the  declarations  of  Scrip- 
ture? So  far  from  contracting  or  distorting  our  views  of  the 
Divine  perfections,  it  tends  to  expand  our  conceptions  of  the 
plans  and  operations  of  the  Deity.  If  periods  of  duration 
ahnost  too  great  for  human  powers  to  estimate,  have  been  em- 
ployed since  the  original  creation  of  our  globe,  to  bring  it  to 
its  present  state, — if  vast  successive  revolutions,  at  different 
eras,  have  taken  place  upon  its  surface — if  the  waters  of  the 
mighty  deep  have  at  different  periods  overflowed  the  solid 
land — if  the  place  where  we  now  stand  was  once  a  portion  of 
the  bottom  of  the   ocean,  over  which  its  mighty  billows  for 


GEOLOGY.  193 

ages  had  rolled — if  subterraneous  fires  have  at  different  periods 
raised  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  deep  those  huge  mountains 
which  now  lift  their  summits  to  the  clouds — if  lofty  moun- 
tains have  been  sunk  down  many  thousands  of  feet  below  their 
ancient  level,  so  as  to  form  deep  valleys  or  the  bottom  of  the 
seas — if  the  Almighty,  after  creating  the  matter  of  our  globe, 
impressed  certain  laws  upon  its  elementary  substances,  and 
left  these  laws  to  operate  as  they  now  do,  with  only  occasional 
interferences — if  races  of  animated  beings  have  occupied  the 
globe  for  myriads  of  ages — if  new  races  have  been  created  at 
different  periods  and  subsequently  destroyed — or  if  numerous 
orders  of  intelligent  existence  may  have  occupied  the  surface 
of  the  globe  ages  before  man  was  introduced  to  this  terrestrial 
scene — if  tremendous  convulsions  have  shaken  the  firm  founda- 
tions of  the  earth — in  short,  if  by  all  the  processes  to  which 
we  have  alluded,  our  globe  was  gradually  prepared  for  tiie 
purposes  it  now  fulfils,  and  that  the  Creator  chose  to  employ 
these  rather  than  tlie  special  interposition  of  miraculous  power 
— such  considerations  tend  to  exhibit  the  power,  wisdom,  and 
benevolence  of  the  Deity  in  a  new  point  of  view,  and  to  en- 
large our  conceptions  of  the  magnificent  plans  of  Him  who  is 
'^  The  King  eternal,  immortal,  and  invisible,"  who  is  "  won- 
derful in  counsel  and  excellent  in  working." — We  are  here 
shown  that  the  space  which  has  intervened  between  the  pre- 
sent time  and  the  period  when  man  was  first  placed  upon  the 
globe,  is  but  one  of  the  units  of  a  vast  series  of  chronological 
periods  which  have  gone  before,  and  which  stretch  backwards 
into  the  abyss  of  immeasurable  duration.  It  is  but  a  single 
link  of  the  great  chain  which  stretches  from  the  moment  when 
matter  first  arose  from  nothing,  to  diversify  the  wilds  of  im- 
mensity, down  to  the  hour  wiiich  is  now^  passing  over  us. 
And  who  knows  but  that  the  system  of  the  globe  with  which 
we  are  presently  connected  may  be  but  one  link  in  an  inter- 
minable series  of  events  connected  with  other  orders  of  intel- 
ligences, which  will  be  unfolded  during  the  revolutions  of  a 
coming  eternity .? 

The  science  of  astronomy  directs  our  views  to  regions  of 
s-pace  which  are  immeasurable  by  mortals,  and  perhaps  even 
by  intelligences  of  a  higher  order,  and  discloses  to  our  sight 
ten  thousands  of  millions  of  magnificent  orbs,  whose  existence 
was  not  even  suspected  200  years  ago.  Geology  directs  our 
views  to  a  stupendous  series  of  events  stretching  back  to  the 
ages  of  a  past  eternity.  The  one  conducts  our  vision  to  the 
far  distant  regions  of  immensity  ; — the  other  to  the  immea- 
surable periods  of  past  duration ; — the  one  enlarges  our  con- 

17 


194  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHEK. 

ceptions  o{  space <,  and  the  innumerable  objects  with  which  it 
is  diversified  ; — the  other  expands  our  ideas  o^  time,  and  the 
revolutions  wliich  have  marked  its  progress.  But  astronomy 
has  done  more  than  this.  Like  geology,  it  extends  our  views 
to  periods  of  time  immensely  long  in  the  flux  of  past  duration 
— periods  during  which  thousands  of  the  luminaries  of  heaven 
have  existed  and  displayed  their  radiance.  Sir  W.  Herschel, 
in  his  remarks  on  the  nehuJce^  has  concluded,  from  a  variety 
of  ingenious  reasonings  and  observations,  that  those  nebulae 
Avhich  assume  a  milky  light  or  appearance,  cannot  be  less  than 
about  7000  times  the  distance  of  the  star  Sirius,  or  168  thou- 
sand hiUions  of  miles ;  and  from  other  observations,  it  is  in- 
ferred that  other  bodies  in  the  heavens  are  removed  to  a 
much  greater  distance.  Now  light,  notwithstanding  its  amazing 
velocity  of  192,000  miles  in  a  second,  would  be  nearly  thirty 
thousand  years  ere  it  could  fly  from  such  nebulae  to  the  earth. 
Since,  therefore,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  light  of  such  bodies  has  actu- 
ally been  seen,  and  consequently,  that  it  must  have  been  travel- 
ling at  least  many  thousands  of  years  before  it  could  have  reach- 
ed the  eyes  of  any  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe  ;  it  follows, 
that  such  bodies  must  have  been  brought  into  existence  at  far 
distant  periods  of  past  duration,  otherwise  they  could  not  thus 
have  darted  their  light  through  such  vast  spaces  of  immensity. 

The  discoveries  of  modern  astronomy  likewise  disclose  to 
lis  certain  facts  which  lead  us  to  the  conclusion,  that  certain 
progressive  operations  are  going  forward,  analogous  to  those 
which  appear  to  have  been  carried  forward  in  remote  ages,  in 
relation  to  our  globe.  Had  our  limits  permitted,  we  might 
have  shown  that  some  of  the  comets  appear  to  be  in  an  early 
stage  of  their  progress  towards  becoming,  habitable  worlds — 
that  many  of  the  nebulae  give  evidence  of  a  gradual  progres- 
sion towards  condensation — that  the  appearance  of  new  stars, 
the  disappearance  of  others  which  had  long  shone  in  the  hea- 
vens, and  the  gradual  diminution  of  the  light  of  others — the 
changes  which  appear  to  be  occasionally  taking  place  on  tlie 
surfaces  of  the  sun  and  the  planets,  along  with  other  celestial 
phenomena — are  indications  that  progression  towards  perfec- 
tion, and  perpetual  change,  are  not  peculiar  to  our  world,  but 
are  principles  in  the  Creator's  government,  pervading  the  wide- 
extended  universe. 

In  short,  progressive  improvement  towards  perfection  forms 
a  characteristic  of  the  plans  of  the  Almighty,  not  only  in  the 
physical,  but  also  in  the  moral  world.  In  the  first  instance, 
after  the  flood,  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  was  chiefly 
confined  to  the  family  of  Abraham  ;  afterwards,  it  wa'^  dis- 


GEOLOGY.  195 

seminated  among  the  tribes  of  Israel,  but  circumscribed  witliin 
the  small  territory  of  Judea  ;  in  process  of  time  it  was  partially 
diffused  among  the  surrounding  nations ;  after  the  Christian 
era  it  spread  abroad  through  the  greater  part  of  the  Roman 
empire ;  it  has  now  extended  its  influence  over  most  of  the 
European  nations,  and  over  a  certain  portion  of  the  tribes  that 
inhabit  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  It  is  still  in  progress ;  and, 
on  the  foundation  of  the  declarations  of  inspired  prophets  we 
now  look  forward  to  the  period  when  "the  glory  of  Jehovah 
shall  be  revealed,  and  when  all  flesh  shall  see  it  together;" 
when  "all  the  ends  of  the  world  shall  remember  and  turn  to 
the  Lord,"  and  "  when  righteousness  and  praise  shall  spring 
forth  before  ail  nations,"  And  the  scenes  of  a  coming  eternity 
will  doubtless  display  changes  and  revolutions  far  surpassing 
in  grandeur  all  the  events  which  have  happened  during  the 
myriads  of  ages  which  have  already  past,  and  which  will 
excite  the  astonishment  and  adoration  of  an  admiring  universe. 
Even  in  an  intellectual  and  political  point  of  view,  the  nations 
are  making  progress  towards  perfection,  "Old  things  are  pass- 
ing away,"  and  new  scenes  of  improvement  are  gradually  un- 
folding. The  state  of  society,  in  the  island  in  which  we  dwell, 
2000  years  ago,  presents  nearly  as  great  a  contrast  to  what  it 
is  now,  as  the  chaotic  state  of  our  globe  exhibited  before  it 
was  reduced  to  the  beauty  and  order  in  which  we  now  behold 
it.  In  short,  every  thing  we  contemplate  in  the  scene  around 
us  is  progressive :  the  faculties  of  the  human  mind,  and  the 
corporeal  powers  from  infancy  to  manhood — the  growth  of 
all  the  animal  and  vegetable  races — the  improvements  of  art, 
and  the  discoveries  of  science — education,  civilisation,  and 
political  economy — the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  the  mode  of 
travelling  by  sea  and  land,  and  hundreds  of  other  objects  and 
movements  demonstrate  that  progression  is  a  law  which  per- 
vades both  the  intellectual  and  the  corporeal  universe ; — and, 
in  the  future  world,  the  expansion  of  the  human  faculties,  and 
the  progress  of  the  mind  from  one  scene  of  material  and  in- 
tellectual grandeur  to  another,  will  form  one  portion  of  the 
happiness  of  renovated  spirits:  and  as  such  a  progression  will 
never  cease,  their  felicity  will  be  of  perpetual  duration  ;  for, 
if  a  finite  spirit  were  to  stop  short  in  its  excursions,  or  to 
arrive  at  a  boundary  where  it  could  proceed  no  farther — from 
that  moment  its  happiness  would  begin  to  diminish,  and  misery, 
to  a  certain  extent,  would  infallibly  ensue. 

I  have  only  to  add  that,  whatever  ma}^  be  affirmed  respect- 
inff  the  antiquity  of  the  materials  of  which  the  earth  is  com- 
posed, it  is  admitted  by  every  geologist,  that  our  globe  as  to 


196  CHRISTIA-V  PHILOSOPHER. 

775  present  slate  and  arrangement,  has  been  comparatively  of 
short  duration.  All  the  physical  monuments  which  exist,  and 
the  progressive  changes  which  have  happened  in  tlie  strata  of 
the  earth,  as  well  as  historical  monuments,  and  the  concurrent 
tradition  of  many  nations,  bear  witness  to  this  truth,  that  the 
first  appearance  of  man  upon  the  face  of  the  globe  cannot  be 
referreci  to  a  period  farther  back  than  five  or  six  thousand 
years  from  the  present  time. 

Had  the  limits  assigned  to  the  present  article  pennitted,  I 
might  have  introduced  some  remarks  on  the  2d  verse  of  the 
1st  chapter  of  Genesis,  "The  earth  was  without  form  and 
void,"  &c.,  or  as  it  has  sometimes  been  translated — "After- 
■vvards  the  earth  became  waste  and  desolate" — which  expres- 
sions evidently  imply  that,  at  the  period  here  alluded  to,  the 
substance  or  materials  of  the  globe  did  exist ;  for  we  are  told 
that  the  earth  "  zcf/5,"  or  "  had  become^''  desolate  and  waste,  pre- 
vious to  the  arrangements  which  are  subsequently  described. 
How  long  it  had  continued  in  this  state,  or  in  any  of  its  pre- 
vious states — whether  a  year,  a  century,  or  thousands  of  years, 
we  are  not  informed,  nor  is  there  any  expression  in  Scripture 
which  determines  this,  so  that  we  are  left  at  full  liberty  to 
carry  our  views  oh  this  point  as  far  back  into  the  ages  of  past 
duration,  as  the  facts  connected  with  the  structure  of  our  globe 
may  warrant,  without  controverting  any  position  contained  in 
the  sacred  oracl'^s.  1  might  likewise  have  shown  that  the  sun 
and  stars  must  have  been  brought  into  existence  before  the 
period  called  the  "fourth  day,"  at  which  time  they  were  ap- 
pointed "  to  rule  the  day,  and  to  be  for  signs  and  seasons, 
and  for  days  and  years".— and  that  the  Creator,  either  through 
the  medium  of  physical  causes,  or  by  a  direct  interposition  of 
his  power,  produced  the  effects  described  in  the  sacred  narra- 
tive— such  as  the  separation  of  the  ocean  from  the  dry  land — 
in  the  periods  of  time  there  specified.  But  the  pi  oof  and  illus- 
tration of  such  positions  would  occupy  too  mucli  space  in  the 
present  work.* 

On  the  whole,  the  subject  of  geology  forms  an  interesting 
and  instructive  study  both  to  the  philosopher  and  the  Christian. 
"When  we  take  a  survey  of  the  august  objects  which  diversify 
the  surface  of  our  globe  ;  when  we  enter  the  wild  and  roman- 
tic scene  of  a  mountainous  country,  or  descend  into  the  sub- 

*  For  fi  fiirtlior  illusfrafion  of  some  of  these  topics,  ihp  author  respectfully 
refers  the  reader  to  a  lecture,  lately  published,  entitled,  "  Discoveries  of 
Modern  (neology  not  inconsistent  with  Revelation" — beinc  the  Gill  of  a 
series  of  lectures  to  young  men,  delivered  in  Broughton  Place  Church, 
Edinburgh,  in  March.  1813. 


GEOLOGY. 


197 


terraneous  regions  of  the  globe,  we  are  every  where  struck 
with  the  vestiges  of  operations  carried  on  by  the  powers  of 
nature,  upon  a  scale  of  prodigious  magnitude,  and  with  the 
exertion  of  forces,  the  stupendous  nature  of  which  astonishes 
luid  overpowers  the  mind.  We  seem  as  if  standing  on  the 
ruins,  and  contemplating  the  vestiges  of  a  former  world.  We 
oehold  "  hills"  which  "  have  melted  like  wax  at  the  presence 
of  the  Lord,"  and  "mountains"  which  "have  been  carried 
into  tlie  midst  of  the  sea."  We  behold  rocks  of  enormous 
size,  which  have  been  rent  from  their  foundations,  and  rolled 
from  one  continent  to  another — the  most  solid  strata  of  the 
earth  bent  under  the  action  of  some  tremendous  power,  and 
dispersed  in  fragments  throughout  the  surrounding  regions. 
We  behold  the  summits  of  lofty  mountains,  over  which  the 
ocean  had  rolled  its  mighty  billows — confounding  lands  and 
seas  in  one  universal  devastation — transporting  plants  and 
forests  from  one  quarter  of  the  world  to  another,  and  spread- 
ing universal  destruction  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters 
and  the  earth.  Contemplating  such  scenes  of  grandeur,  we 
perceive  the  force  and  sublimity  of  those  descriptions  of  the 
Deity  contained  in  the  volume  of  inspiration.  "The  Lord 
reigneth;  he  is  clothed  with  majesty;  in  his  hand  are  the 
deep  places  of  the  earth,  the  strength  of  the  hills  is  his  also. 
He  removeth  the  mountains  and  they  know  not;  he  over- 
turneth  them  in  his  anger;  he  shaketh  the  earth  out  of  her 
place,  and  the  pillars  thereof  tremble.  At  his  presence  the 
earth  shook  and  trembled ;  the  foundations  also  of  the  hills 
moved  and  were  shaken.  He  covered  the  earth  with  the  deep 
as  with  a  garment,  the  waters  stood  above  the  mountains.  At 
his  rebuke  they  fled ;  at  the  voice  of  his  thunder  they 
hastened  away. )  ^ 

But,  amidst  all  the  revolutions  and  catastrophes  that  have 
taken  place  in  the  constitution  of  our  globe,  there  is  the  clear- 
est evidence  of  an  all-wise  and  superintending  Providence 
directing  every  event.  Amidst  the  convulsions  which  have 
rent  its  strata — that  have  "  carried  hills  into  the  midst  of  the 
seas" — and  raised  mountains  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean — 
there  are  striking  indications  of  Divine  benevolence  in  pre- 
paring our  world  for  the  comfort  and  accommodations  its 
inhabitants  now  enjoy.  The  facts  disclosed  by  geological  in- 
vestigation tend  to  enlarge  our  conceptions  of  the  attributes 
of  the  Divinity,  and  of  the  sublimity  of  his  plans  and  arrange- 
ments in  the  universe  ;  and  to  demonstrate  that  his  creating 
power  has  been  repeatedly  exercised  during  countless  ages, 
in  calling  into  existence  numerous  orders  of  beings,  and  in 
carrviniT  forward  his  arrano^ements  to  a  glorious  consummation, 

17* 


198  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

ASTRONOMY. 

Anollier  science  ^vhich  stands  in  an  intimate  relation  to  re- 
ligion is  astronomy. 

This  sublime  science  teaches  us  the  magnitudes  and  dis- 
tances of  the  heavenly  bodies,  their  arrangement,  their  various 
motions  and  phenomena,  and  the  laws  by  which  their  move- 
ments are  regulated.  It  presents  to  our  view,  objects  the  most 
M'onderful  and  sublime  ;  whether  we  consider  the  vast  magni- 
tude oi"  the  bodies  about  which  it  is  conversant — their  immense 
munher — the  velocity  of  their  motions — the  astonishing 
forces  requisite  to  impel  them  in  their  rapid  career  through 
the  regions  of  the  sky — the  vast  spaces  which  surround  them, 
and  in  which  they  perform  their  revolutions — the  magnifi- 
cent circles  they  describe — the  splendour  of  their  appearance 
— or  the  important  ends  they  are  destined  to  serve  in  the 
grand  system  of  the  universe.  Having  adverted  to  this  subject, 
when  illustrating  the  omnipotence  of  the  Deity,  I  shall  here 
shuply  state  a  few  additional  facts  with  respect  to  the  general 
appearance  of  the  heavens,  the  bodies  which  compose  the 
planetary  system,  and  the  discoveries  which  have  been  made 
in  the  region  of  the  stars. 

When  we  lift  our  eyes  towards  the  sky,  we  perceive  an 
apparent  hollow  hemisphere,  placed  at  an  indefinite  distance, 
and  surrounding  the  earth  on  every  hand.  In  the  day  time, 
tlie  principal  object  which  appears  in  this  hemisphere  is  the 
sun.  In  the  morning,  we  see  him  rise  above  the  distant 
mountains,  or  from  the  extremity  of  the  ocean  :  he  gradually 
ascends  the  vault  of  heaven,  and  then  declines,  and  disappears 
in  the  opposite  quarter  of  the  sky.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
tlie  globe,  where  we  reside,  if,  about  the  21st  of  March,  we 
place  ourselves  on  an  open  plain,  with  our  face  towards  the 
south,  the  sun  will  appear  to  rise  on  our  left,  or  due  east, 
about  six  in  the  morning,  and  about  the  same  hour  in  the 
evening  he  will  set  due  west.  In  the  month  of  June,  he  rises 
to  our  left,  but  somewhat  behind  us,  in  a  direction  towards 
the  north-east,  ascends  to  a  greater  height  at  noon  than  in 
the  month  of  March,  and,  after  describing  a  large  arc  of  the 
heavens,  sets  on  our  right  and  still  behind  us,  in  the  north- 
M-estern  quarter  of  the  sky.  In  the  month  of  December,  if 
we  stand  in  the  same  position,  we  may  observe,  without 
turning  ourselves,  both  his  rising  and  setting.  He  rises  in  the 
south-east,  ascends  to  a  small  elevation  at  noon,  and  sets  in 
the  south-west,  after  having  described  a  very  small  arc  of  the 
heavens.     Every  day  he  appears  to  move  a  little  towards  the 


ASTROXOMY.  199 

east,  or  contrary  to  his  apparent  diurnal  motion  :  for  the  stars 
which  are  seen  to  the  eastward  of  him  appear  every  succeed- 
ing day  to  make  a  nearer  approach  to  the  place  in  which  he 
is  seen.  All  the  variety  of  these  successive  changes  is  ac- 
complished within  the  period  of  365  days  6  liours,  in  which 
time  he  appears  to  have  made  a  complete  revolution  round  the 
heavens  from  west  to  east. 

The  ?noon  is  the  next  object  in  the  heavens  which  naturally 
attracts  our  attention ;  and  she  is  found  to  go  through  similar 
variations  in  the  course  of  a  month.  When  she  first  becomes 
visible  at  new  moon,  she  appears  in  the  western  part  of  the 
heavens,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  not  far  from  the  setting 
sun.  Every  night  she  increases  in  size,  and  removes  to  a 
greater  distance  from  the  sun,  till  at  last  she  appears  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  horizon,  just  as  the  sun  disappears  in  the 
western ;  at  which  time  she  presents  a  round  full-enlightened 
face.  After  this  she  gradually  moves  farther  and  farther  east- 
ward, and  her  enlightened  part  gradually  decreases,  till  at  last 
she  seems  to  approach  the  sun  as  nearly  in  the  east  as  she  did 
in  the  west,  and  rises  only  a  little  before  him  in  the  morning, 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent.  All  these  different  changes  may  be 
traced,  by  attending  to  her  apparent  positions,  from  time  to 
time,  with  respect  to  the  fixed  stars. 

A  dark  shadow  is  occasionally  seen  to  move  across  the 
face  of  the  moon,  which  obscures  her  light,  and  gives  her  the 
appearance  of  tarnished  copper.  Sometimes  this  shadow 
covers  only  a  small  portion  of  her  surface ;  at  other  times  it 
covers  the  whole  of  her  disk  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  its 
margin  always  appears  of  the  figure  of  a  segment  of  a  circle. 
Tliis  phenomenon,  which  happens,  at  an  average,  about  twice 
every  year,  is  termed  an  eclijjse  of  the  moon.  It  is  produced 
by  the  shadow. of  the  earth  falling  upon  the  moon,  when  the 
sun,  the  earth,  and  the  moon  are  nearly  in  a  straight  line ; 
and  can  happen  only  at  the  time  o^  full  moon.  Sometimes 
the  moon  appears  to  pass  across  the  body  of  the  sun  ;  when 
her  dark  side  is  turned  towards  the  earth,  covering  his  disk 
either  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  intercepting  his  rays  from  a 
certain  portion  of  the  earth.  This  is  called  an  ecl'ijjse  of  the 
sun.,  and  can  happen  only  at  the  time  of  new  moon.  In  a  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  seldom  happens,  the  darkness  is  so 
striking,  that  some  of  the  planets  and  sometimes  the  larger 
stars  are  seen,  and  the  inferior  animals  appear  struck  with 
terror. 

Again,  if  on  a  winter's  evening,  about  six  o'clock,  we  direct 
our  view  to  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  sky,  we  shall  perceive 


200  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

certain  stars  just  risen  above  the  liorizon ;  if  we  view  the 
same  stars  about  midnight,  we  shall  find  them  at  a  consider- 
able elevation  in  the  south,  having  apparently  moved  over  a 
space  equal  to  one  half  of  the  whole  hemisphere.  On  the 
next  morning,  about  six  o'clock,  the  same  stars  will  be  seen 
settiuii  in  the  western  part  of  the  sky.  If  we  turn  our  eyes 
towards  the  north,  we  shall  perceive  a  similar  motion  in  these 
twinkling  oibs;  but  with  this  difference,  that  a  very  consi- 
derable number  of  them  neither  rise  nor  set,  but  seem  to  move 
round  an  immovable  point,  called  the  north  pole.  Near  this 
point  is  placed  the  pole  star,  which  seems  to  have  little  or 
no  apparent  motion,  and  which,  in  our  latitude,  appears 
elevated  a  little  more  than  half  way  between  the  northern 
part  of  our  horizon  and  the  zenith^  or  point  above  our  heads. 


The  above  cut,  which  represents  the  principal  stars  in  the 
constellations  Ursa  Major  and  Ursa  Minor,  will  enable  the 
reader  to  recognize  the  pole  star,  by  attending  to  the  follow- 
ing directions.  The  seven  stars  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
figure  represent  Ursa  Major,  or  the  Great  Bear,  sometimes 
known  by  the  names  of  the  Plough  and  Charles''  Wain.  The 
stars  on  the  upper  part  represent  Ursa  Minor,  or  the  Little 


ASTRONOMY,  201 

Bear,  the  largest  star  of  which,  on  the  right  hand  side,  is  the 
Pole  star.  About  the  beginning  of  November,  at  six  or  seven 
o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  Great  Bear  will  appear  near  the 
north,  at  a  low  elevation  above  the  horizon,  and  nearly  in  tlie 
position  here  represented.  The  two  stars  on  the  right  hand 
side  of  the  Great  Bear  are  called  the  Pointers,  and  are  distant 
from  each  other  about  five  degrees.  If  a  line  connecting  these 
stars  be  considered  as  prolonged  upwards  to  a  considerable 
distance,  (about  twenty-nine  degrees,)  till  it  meet  the  first 
bright  star,  that  star  is  the  Pole  star,  which  is  here  represented 
at  the  higher  part  of  the  figure.  Were  the  same  observation 
made  about  the  middle  of  April,  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening, 
the  Great  Bear  will  appear  almost  directly  over  our  heads, 
above  the  Pole  star,  and  then  we  must  conceive  the  line  con- 
necting the  two  Pointers  as  drawn  downwards  towards  the 
Pole  star.  At  difl^erent  times  of  the  night,  and  at  different 
periods  of  the  year,  the  Great  Bear  will  appear  to  be  in  differ- 
ent positions  with  respect  to  the  Pole  star,  sometimes  below, 
sometimes  above,  and  at  other  times  to  the  east  or  west  of  it. 
But  in  all  positions,  a  line  drawn  through  the  Pointers  will 
always  direct  the  eye  to  the  Pole  star. 

A  person  who  has  directed  his  attention  to  the  heavens  for 
the  first  time,  after  having  made  such  observations,  will  natu- 
rally  inquire — Whence  come  those  stars  which  begin  to  ap- 
pear in  the  east  1  Whither  have  those  gone  which  have  dis- 
appeared in  the  west }  and,  What  becomes,  during  the  day, 
of  the  stars  which  are  seen  in  the  night  ? — It  will  soon  occur 
to  a  rational  observer-,  who  is  convinced  of  the  roundness  of 
the  earth,  that  the  stars  which  rise  above  the  eastern  horizon 
come  from  another  hemisphere,  which  we  are  apt  to  imagine 
below  us,  and  when  they  set,  return  to  that  hemisphere  again  ; 
and  that  the  reason  why  the  stars  are  not  seen  in  the  day- 
time, is  not  because  they  are  absent  from  our  hemisphere,  or 
have  ceased  to  shine,  but  because  their  light  is  obscured  by 
the  more  vivid  splendour  of  the  sun.*     From  such  observa- 

*  This  is  put  beyond  all  doubt  by  the  invention  of  the  telescope  ;  by 
which  instrument,  adapted  to  an  equatorial  motion,  we  are  enabled  to  see 
many  of  the  stars  even  at  noon-day.  The  author  of  this  work,  in  1812 
atid  1813,  made  a  number  of  observations  by  means  of  an  Equatorial 
Telescope,  to  determine  the  following  particulars  : — What  stars  and  planets 
may  be  conveniently  seen  in  the  day-time,  when  the  sun  is  above  the 
horizon  ? — what  degrees  of  magnifying  power  are  requisite  for  distinguish- 
ing them  ? — how  near  their  conjunction  with  the  sun  they  may  be  seen  ? 
— and,  whether  the  diminution  of  the  aperture  of  the  telescope,  or  the  in- 
crease of  magnifying  power,  conduces  most  to  render  a  star  or  planet 
visible  in  day-light  ?  I'he  results  of  several  hundreds  of  observations  on 
these  points,  accompanied  with  some   original  deductions  and  remarks, 


202  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSUPIIER. 

tions  we  arc  led  to  conclude,  that  the  globe  on  which  we 
tread  is  suspended  in  empty  space — is  surrounded  on  all  sides 
bv  the  celestial  vault — and  that  the  whole  sphere  of  the  hea- 
vens has  an  apparent  motion  round  the  earth  every  twenty- 
four  hours.  Whether  this  motion  be  real,  or  only  apparent, 
must  be  determined  by  other  considerations. 

Such  general  views  of  the  nocturnal  heavens,  which  every 
common  observer  may  take,  have  a  tendency  to  expand  the 
mind,  and  to  elevate  it  to  the  contemplation  of  an  invisible 
Power,  by  which  such  mighty  movements  are  conducted. 
Whether  we  consider  the  vast  concave,  with  all  its  radiant 
orbs,  moving  in  majestic  grandeur  around  our  globe,  or  the 
earth  itself  whirling  round  its  inhabitants  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion— an  idea  of  sublimity,  and  of  Almighty  energy,  irresisti- 
bly forces  itself  upon  the  mind,  whicli  throws  completely  into 
the  shade  the  mightiest  efforts  of  human  power.  The  most 
powerful  mechanical  engines  that  were  ever  constructed  by 
the  agency  of  man,  can  scarcely  afford  us  the  least  assistance 
in  forming  a  conception   of  that   incomprehensible   power, 

are  inserted  in  Nicholson's  Philosophical  Journal,  for  October  1813,  vol. 
xxxvi.  pp.  109 — 128.  The  following  are  some  of  the  results  which  were 
deduced  from  the  observations: — That  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude  rnay 
be  distinguished,  at  any  time  of  the  day,  with  a  magnifying  power  of  30 
times,  but  that  a  higher  magnifying  power  is  preferable — That  most  of  the 
stars  of  the  second  magnitude  may  be  seen  with  a  power  of  100 ;  and 
with  a  power  of  60  times,  when  the  sun  is  not  much  more  than  two  hours 
above  the  horizon — That  the  planet  Jupiter,  when  not  within  30  or  40 
degrees  of  the  sun,  may  be  seen  with  a  power  of  15  times  ;  and  that 
Venus  may,  in  most  instances,  be  seen  with  a  power  of  from  7  to  100 
times,  and  upwards — That  Jupiter  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  in  the 
day-time,  when  within  26  degrees  of  the  sun  ;  but  that  Venus  may  be  dis- 
tinctly perceived  near  her  superior  conjunction,  when  only  one  degree  and 
27  minutes  from  the  sun's  margin:  and  consequently  may  be  visible  a! 
the  time  of  that  conjunction,  when  her  geocentric  latitude  equals  or  eX' 
ceeds  one  degree  43  minutes — That  she  may  be  perceived  like  a  fine 
slender  crescent,  within  35  hours  after  passing  her  ivferior  conjunction, 
&c.  One  practical  purpose  to  which  such  observations  on  Venus,  at  the 
time  of  her  superior  conjunction,  may  be  applied,  is  to  determine  the  dif- 
ference (if  any)  between  her  polar  and  equatorial  diameters.  For  it  is  only 
at  that  conjunction  that  she  presents  to  the  earth  a  full  enlightened  hemi- 
sphere ;  and  in  no  other  position  can  the  measure  of  both  diameters  be 
taken,  except  when  she  makes  a  transit  across  the  sun's  disk.  As  the 
Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  are  found  to  be  spheroids,  it  is  highly 
probable  ihat  Venus  is  of  a  similar  figure  ;  but  this  point  has  never  yet 
been  ascertained  by  actual  observation.  See  also  the  Edinburgh  Philoso- 
phical Journal,  No.  V.  for  July,  1820,  p.  191  ;  and  No.  XIII.  for  July, 
1822— The  Scots  Magazine,  for  February,  1814,  p.  84— Monthly  Maga- 
zine, February,  1814,  and  August,  1820,  p.  62— Brew^ster's  Ferguson's 
Astronomy,  2d  edition,  vol.  ii.  p.  111.  On  March  10th,  1842,  the  author 
saw  Venus,  about  12  o'clock  noon,  when  only  1°  21'  distant  from  the  sun's 
eastern  hmb,  with  a  3^  feet  achromatic  telescope,  magnifying  95  times-^ 
the  aperture  of  the  object  glass  being  contracted  to  \l  inches. 


ASTRONOMY.  203 

which,  with  unceasing  energy,  conrimunicates  motion  to  re- 
volving v.'orlds.  And  yet,  such  is  the  apathy  with  which  the 
heavens  are  viewed  by  the  greater  part  of  mankind,  that  there 
are  thousands  who  have  occasionally  gazed  at  the  stars  for 
the  space  of  fifty  years,  who  are  still  ignorant  of  the  fact, 
that  they  perform  an  apparent  diurnal  revolution  round  our 
globe. 

Again,  if  we  contemplate  the  heavens  with  some  attention, 
for  a  number  of  successive  nights,  we  shall  find,  that  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  stars  never  vary  their  positions  with 
respect  to  each  other.  If  we  observe  two  stars  at  a  certain 
apparent  distance  from  each  other,  either  north  or  south,  or 
in  any  other  direction,  they  will  appear  at  the  same  distance, 
and  in  the  same  relative  position  to  each  other,  the  next  even- 
ing, the  next  month,  and  the  next  year.  The  stars,  for  in- 
stance, which  form  the  sicord  and  belt  of  Orion^  present  to 
our  eye  the  same  figure  and  relative  aspect,  during  the  whole 
period  they  are  visible  in  winter,  and  from  one  year  to  an- 
other ;  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  all  the  fixed  stars  in  the 
firmament.  On  examining  the  sky  a  litde  more  minutely, 
however,  we  perceive  certain  bodies  which  regularly  shift 
their  positions.  Sometimes  they  appear  to  move  towards  the 
east,  sometimes  towards  the  west,  and  at  other  times  seem  to 
remain  in  a  stationary  position.  These  bodies  have  obtained 
the  name  of  planets^  or  wandering  stars  ;  and  in  our  latitude, 
are  most  frequently  seen,  either  in  the  eastern  and  western, 
or  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  heavens.  Ten  of  these  plane- 
tary orbs  have  been  discovered ;  six  of  which  are,  for  the 
most  part,  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  By  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  motions  of  these  bodies,  and  their  different  aspects, 
astronomers  have  determined  that  they  all  move  round  the 
sun  as  the  centre  of  their  motions,  and  form,  along  with  the 
earth  and  several  smaller  globes,  one  grand  and  harmonious 
system.  This  assemblage  of  planetary  bodies  is  generally 
termed  the  solar  system,  of  which  I  shall  now  exhibit  a  brief 
outline. 

THE   SOLAR   SYSTEM. 

Of  this  system,  the  sun  is  the  centre  and  the  animating 
principle,  and  by  far  the  largest  body  that  exists  within  its 
limits.  The  first  thing  that  strikes  the  mind  when  contem- 
plating this  glorious  orb,  is  its  astonishing  magnitude.  This 
vast  globe  is  found  to  be  about  880,000  miles  in  diameter, 
and  couppquently  contain?:  a  mass  of  mattv^r  equal  to  thirteen 


204  CHRISTIAN  PHlLOSOPHEn. 

liundred  thousand  globes  of  the  size  of  the  earth.  Were  its 
central  parts  placed  adjacent  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  its 
circumference  would  reach  two  hundred  thousand  miles  be- 
yond the  moon's  orbit,  on  every  side,  filling  a  cubical  space 
of  356,818,739,200,000,000  miles.  If  it  would  require 
eighteen  thousand  years  to  traverse  every  square  mile  on  the 
eanh's  surface,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  a  day,*  it  would  re- 
quire more  than  two  hundred  milUons  of  years  to  pass  over 
every  portion  of  the  sun's  surface,  at  the  same  rate.  Even  at 
the  rate  of  ninety  miles  a  day,  it  would  require  more  than 
eighty  years  to  go  round  its  circumference.  Of  a  body  so 
vast  in  its  dimensions,  the  human  mind,  with  all  its  efforts, 
can  form  no  adequate  conception.  Jt  appears  an  extensive 
universe  in  itself;  and  although  no  other  body  existed  within 
the  range  of  infinite  space,  this  globe  alone  would  afford  a 
powerful  demonstration  of  the  omnipotence  of  the  Creator. 
Were  the  sun  a  hollow  sphere,  surrounded  by  an  external 
shell  and  a  luminous  atmosphere ;  were  this  shell  perforated 
with  several  hundreds  of  openings  into  the  internal  parts  ; 
were  a  globe  as  large  as  the  earth  placed  at  its  centre,  and  an- 
other globe  as  large  as  the  moon,  and  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  centre  as  the  moon  is  from  us,  to  revolve  round  the 
central  globe, — it  would  present  to  the  view  a  universe  as 
splendid  and  glorious  as  that  which  now  appears  to  the  vulgar 
eye — a  universe  as  large  and  extensive  as  the  vvhole  creation 
was  conceived  to  be  by  our  ancestors,  in  the  infancy  of  astro- 
nomy. And  who  can  tell,  but  that  Almighty  Being,  who  has 
not  left  a  drop  of  water  in  a  stagnant  pool  without  its  inhabit- 
ants, has  arranged  a  number  of  worlds  within  the  capacious 
circuit  of  the  sun,  and  peopled  them  with  intelligent  beings  in 
the  first  stages  of  their  existence,  to  remain  there  for  a  certain 
period,  till  they  be  prepared  for  being  transported  to  a  more 
expansive  sphere  of  existence  .''  It  is  easy  to  conceive  that 
enjoyments  as  exquisite,  and  a  range  of  thought  as  ample,  as 
have  ever  yet  been  experienced  by  the  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants of  our  world,  might  be  afforded  to  myriads  of  beings 
thus  placed  at  the  centre  of  this  magnificent  luminary.  This 
supposition  is  at  least  as  probable  as  that  of  the  celebrated  Sir 
W.  llerscliel,  who  supposed  that  the  exterior  surface  of  the 
sun  was  peopled  with  inhabitants.  For  if  this  were  the  case, 
the  range  of  view  of  these  inhabitants  would  be  confined 
within  the  limits  of  tvvo  or  three  hundred  miles,  and  no  celes- 
tial body,  but  an  immense  blaze  of  light  would  be  visible  in 

*  See  p.  35. 


ASTRONOMY.  205 

their  hemisphere.  Such  is  the  variety  which  appears  among 
the  works  of  God,  and  such  is  the  diversity  of  situations  in 
which  sensitive  beings  are  placed,  that  we  dare  not  pro- 
nounce it  impossible  that  both  these  suppositions  may  be 
realized. 

Though  the  sun  seems  to  perform  a  daily  circuit  around 
our  globe,  he  may  be  said,  in  this  respect,  to  be  fixed  and 
immovable.  This  motion  is  not  rea/,  but  only  apparent.,  and 
is  owing  to  the  globe  on  which  we  are  placed  moving  round 
its  axis  from  west  to  east;  just  as  the  objects  on  the  bank  of 
a  river  seem  to  move  in  a  contrary  direction,  when  we  are 
sailing  along  its  stream  in  a  steam-boat.  The  only  motion 
which  is  found  to  exist  in  the  sun,  is  a  motion  of  rotation, 
like  that  of  a  globe  or  ball  twirled  round  a  pivot  or  axis, 
which  is  performed  in  the  space  of  twenty-five  days  and  tea 
hours.  This  motion  has  been  ascertained  by  means  of  a 
variety  of  dark  spots  which  are  discovered  by  the  telescope 
on  the  sun's  disk;  which  first  appear  on  his  eastern  limb,  and 
after  a  period  of  about  thirteen  days,  disappear  on  his  western, 
and  after  a  similar  period,  reappear  on  his  eastern  edge. 
These  spots  are  various,  both  in  number,  in  magnitude,  and 
in  shape  :  sometimes  forty  or  fifty,  and  sometimes  only  one 
or  two,  are  visible,  and  at  other  timics  the  sun  appears  entirely 
without  spots.  Most  of  them  have  a  very  dark  nucleus,  or 
central  part,  surrounded  by  an  umbra,  or  fainter  shade.  Some 
of  the  spots  are  as  large  as  would  cover  the  whole  continent 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  others  have  been  observed  of  the 
size  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth ;  and  one  was  seen,  in 
the  year  1779,  which  was  computed  to  be  more  than  Jifty 
thousand  miles  in  diameter. 

With  regard  to  the  nature  of  this  globe — it  appears  highly 
probable,  from  the  observations  of  Sir  W.  Hersciiel,  thai  the 
sun  is  a  solid  and  opake  body,  surrounded  with  luminous 
clouds  which  float  in  the  solar  atmosphere,  and  that  the  dark 
nucleus  of  the  spots  is  the  opake  body  of  the  sun  appearing 
through  occasional  openings  in  this  atmosphere.  The  height 
of  the  atmosphere,  he  computes  to  be  not  less  than  1843,  nor 
more  than  2765  miles,  consisting  of  two  regions  ;  that  nearest 
the  sun  being  opake,  and  probably  resembling  the  clouds  of 
our  earth:  the  outermost  emitting  vast  quantities  of  light,  and 
forming  the  apparent  luminous  globe  we  behold. 

The  sun  is  the  grand  source  of  light  and  heat,  both  to  the 
earth  and  to  all  the  other  planetary  bodies.  The  heat  he  dif- 
fuses animates  every  part  of  our  sublunary  system,  and  all 
that  variety  of  colouring  which  adorns  the  terrestrial  land- 

18 


206  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

scape  is  produced  by  his  rays.  It  has  been  lately  discovered, 
that  the  rays  of  light,  and  the  rays  of  heat,  or  caloric^  are 
distinct  from  each  other  5  for  it  can  be  demonstrated,  that  some 
rays  from  tlie  sun  produce  heat,  which  have  no  power  of  com- 
municating light  or  colour.  The  greatest  heat  is  found  in  the 
red  rays,  the  least  in  the  violet  rays ;  and  in  a  space  beyond 
the  red  rays,  where  there  is  no  light,  the  temperature  is 
greatest.  The  rays  of  the  sun  have  also  been  found  to  pro- 
duce different  chemical  effects.  The  white  muriate  of  silver 
is  blackened  in  the  violet  ray  in  the  space  of  fifteen  seconds, 
though  the  red  will  not  produce  the  same  effect  in  less  than 
twenty  minutes.  Phosphorus  is  kindled  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
red  ray,  and  extinguished  in  the  vicinity  of  the  violet.  The 
solar  light,  therefore,  consists  of  three  different  orders  of  rays, 
one  producing  colour^  a  second  producing  heat,,  and  a  third 
chemical  effects.  Euler  has  computed  that  the  light  of  the 
sun  is  equal  to  6500  candles  at  a  foot  distance,  while  the  moon 
would  be  as  one  candle  at  7|  feet;  Venus  at  421  feet;  and 
Jupiter  at  1320  feet.  That  this  immense  luminary  appears  so 
small  to  our  eyes,  is  owing  to  its  vast  distance,  which  is  no 
less  than  ninety-five  millions  of  miles.  Some  faint  idea  of 
this  distance  may  be  obtained,  by  considering  that  a  steam- 
boat, moving  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  miles  a-day,  would 
require  thirteen  hundred  years  before  it  could  traverse  the  space 
which  intervenes  between  us  and  the  sun. 

"  Hail,  sacred  source  of  inexhausted  light ! 

Prodigious  instance  of  creating  might. 

His  distance  man's  imagination  foils  ; 

Numbers  will  scarce  avail  to  count  the  miles. 

As  swift  as  thought  he  darts  his  radiance  round 

To  distant  worlds,  his  system's  utmost  bound." — Brown. 

The  planet  Mercury.  Mercury  is  the  nearest  planet  to  the 
sun  that  has  yet  been  discovered.  He  is  about  thirty-seven 
millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  sun,  and  revolves  around 
him  in  eighty-eight  days.  His  diameter  is  about  three  thou- 
sand two  hundred  miles.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  four 
new  planets,  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  this  globe  was  considered  as  the 
smallest  primary  planet  in  the  system.  His  surface,  however, 
contains  above  thirty-two  millions  of  square  miles,  which  is 
not  much  less  than  all  the  habitable  parts  of  our  globe.  On 
account  of  his  nearness  to  the  sun,  he  is  seldom  seen  by  the 
naked  eye;  being  always  near  that  quarter  of  the  heavens 
where  the  sun  appears  ;  and  therefore,  few  discoveries  have 
been  made  on  his  surface  by  the  telescope.     M.  Schroeter 


ASTRONOMV.  207 

concludes,  from  certain  observations,  that  this  planet  revolves 
rouiul  its  axis  in  twenty-four  hours  and  five  minutes.  The 
sun  will  appear  to  an  inhabitant  of  Mercury  seven  times 
larger  than  to  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  :  and  if  the  degree  of 
heat  be  in  proportion  to  a  planet's  nearness  to  the  sun,  the 
lieat  in  this  planet  will  be  seven  times  greater  than  on  the 
surface  of  our  globe  ;  and  consequently,  were  the  earth  plared 
in  the  same  position,  all  the  water  on  its  surface  would  boil, 
and  soon  be  turned  into  vapour.  But  the  all-wise  Creator  has, 
doubtless,  attempered  the  surface  of  that  globe,  and  the  consti- 
tution of  the  beings  that  may  occupy  it,  to  the  situation  in 
■which  they  are  placed.* 

Venus,  the  next  planet  in  order  from  the  sun,  revolves 
around  him  in  224  days,  at  the  distance  of  68  millions  of  miles  : 
its  diameter  is  about  seven  thousand  seven  hundred  miles,  or 
nearly  the  size  of  the  earth ;  and  it  turns  round  its  axis  in  the 
space  of  23  hours  and  20  minutes.  This  planet  is  the  most 
brilliant  orb  which  appears  in  our  nocturnal  heavens,  and  is 
usually  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  morning  and  evening 
star.  When  it  approaches  nearest  to  the  earth,  it  is  about  27 
millions  of  miles  distant;  and,  at  its  greatest  distance,  it  is  no 
less  than  163  millions  of  miles  from  the  earth.  Were  the 
M'liole  of  its  enlightened  surface  turned  towards  the  earth, 
when  it  is  nearest,  it  would  exhibit  a  light  and  brilliancy, 
twenty-five  times  greater  than  it  generally  does,  and  appear 
like  a  small  brilliant  moon ;  but  at  that  time  its  dark  hemi- 
sphere is  turned  towards  our  globe.  Both  Venus  and  Mercury, 
when   viewed   by  a  telescope,  appear  to  pass  successively 

*  From  a  variety  of  facts  which  have  been  observed  in  relation  to  the 
production  of  caloric,  it  does  not  appear  probable,  that  the  degree  of  heat 
on  the  surfaces  of  the  different  planets  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
squares  of  their  respective  distances  from  the  sun.  It  is  more  probable  that 
it  depends  chiefly  on  the  distribution  of  the  substance  of  caloric  on  the  sur- 
faces, and  throughout  the  atmospheres  of  these  bodies — in  different  quan- 
tities, according  to  the  ditferent  situations  they  occupy  in  the  solar  system  ; 
and  that  these  different  quantities  of  caloric  are  put  into  action  by  the 
influence  of  the  solar  rays,  so  as  to  produce  that  degree  of  sensible  heat 
requisite  tor  each  respective  planetary  globe.  On  this  hypothesis — which 
is  corroborated  by  a  great  variety  of  facts  and  experiments — there  may  be 
no  more  sensible  heat  felt  on  the  surface  of  the  planet  Mercury,  than  on  the 
surface  of  Uranus,  although  one  of  these  bodies  is  nearly  fifty  times  nearer 
the  sun  than  the  other.  We  have  only  to  suppose  that  a  small  quantity 
of  caloric  exists  in  Mercury,  and  a  larger  quantity  in  Uranus,  proportionate 
to  his  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  system.  On  this  ground,  we  have 
no  reason  to  beUeve,  cither  that  the  planets  nearest  the  sun  are  parched 
with  excessive  heat,  or  that  those  that  are  most  distant  are  exposed  to  all 
the  rigours  of  insufferable  cold,  or  that  the  different  degrees  of  temper- 
ature which  may  he  found  in  these  bodies  render  them  unlit  for  being  the 
abodes  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings. 


208  CHRISTIAN  PIIILOSOrilER. 

through  all  the  shapes  and  appearances  of  the  moon  ;  some- 
times aspuming  a  gibbous  phase,  and  at  other  times  the  form 
of  a  half  moon,  or  that  of  a  crescent ;  which  proves,  that  they 
are  dark  bodies  in  themselves,  and  derive  their  light  from  the 
sun.  Tlie  most  distinct  and  beautiful  views  of  Venus,  espe- 
cially when  it  appears  as  a  crescent,  are  to  be  obtained  in  the 
day  Yime^  by  means  of  an  equatorial  telescope.  From  a  variety 
of  observations  which  the  author  has  made  w^ith  this  instru- 
ment, it  has  been  found  that  Venus  may  be  seen  every  clear 
day,  without  interruption,  during  a  period  of  583  days,  with 
the  occasional  exception  of  thirteen  days  in  one  case  and  only 
three  days  in  another — a  circumstance  which  cannot  be  affirmed 
of  any  other  celestial  body,  the  sun  only  excepted.*  M.  Sciiroe- 
ter  affirms,  that  he  has  discovered  mountains  on  the  surface 
of  this  globe,  one  of  which  is  10,  another  11,  and  a  third  22 
miles  high.  It  appears  also  to  be  encompassed  with  an  at- 
mosphere, the  densest  part  of  which  is  about  16,000  feet  high. 
About  twice  in  the  course  of  a  century  this  planet  appears  to 
pass,  like  a  dark  spot,  across  the  sun's  disk.  This  is  termed 
the  transit  of  Venus.  The  last  transit  happened  June  3,  1769; 
the  next  will  happen  on  December  8,  1874,  which  will  be 
invisible  in  Europe.  Another  will  happen  on  the  6lh  Decem- 
ber, 1882,  which  will  be  partly  visible  in  Great  Britain. 

The  Earth   is  the  next  planet  in   the  system.     It  moves 

Sec  Edin.  Phil.  Journ.,  No.  V.,  July,  1820,  and  No.  XIII,  July, 
1822. — I  have  found,  from  observation,  that  this  planet  may  be  seen  in  the 
day  time,  when  only  1°  21'  from  the  sun's  centre  ;  and,  consequently, 
when  its  geocentric  latitude  at  the  time  of  the  superior  conjunction  exceeds 
that  quantity,  it  may  be  distinctly  seen  during  the  whole  period  of  583 
days,  excepting  about  35  hours  before  and  after  its  inferior  conjunction. 
It  "is  well  known  to  astronomers,  that  there  has  been  a  diflerence  of 
opinion  with  respect  to  the  period  of  the  rotation  of  this  planet.  Cassini, 
from  observations  on  a  bright  spot  which  advanced  20  degrees  in  24  hours 
34  minutes,  determined  the  time  of  its  rotation  to  be  23  hours  and  20  mi- 
nutes. On  the  other  hand,  Bianchini,  from  similar  observations,  con- 
cluded that  its  diurnal  period  was  24  days  and  8  hours.  The  difficulty  of 
deciding  between  these  two  opinions  arises  from  the  short  time  in  which 
observations  can  be  made  on  this  planet,  either  before  sunrise,  or  after 
sunset,  which  prevents  us  from  tracing,  with  accuracy,  the  proaressive 
motion  of  its  spots  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time.  And  although  an  ob- 
server should  mark  the  position  of  the  spots,  at  the  same  hour,  on  two 
succeeding  evenings,  and  find  they  had  moved  forward  about  20  degrees 
in  24  hours,  he  w'ould  still  be  at  a  loss  to  determine,  whether  they  bad 
moved  20  degrees  in  all,  since  the  preceding  observation,  or  had  finished 
a  revolution,  and  20  degrees  more.  In  Nicholson's  Philosophical  Journal, 
vol.  xxxvi.  I  endeavoured  to  show,  how  this  point  may  be  determined  by 
observations  made  on  Venus  in  the  day  time,  by  which,  in  certain  cases, 
the  progressive  motion  of  its  spots  might  be  traced,  without  interruption, 
for  12  hours  or  more,  which  would  completely  settle  the  period  of  ro- 
tation. 


ASTROXOMY.  209 

round  the  sun  in  365  days  5  hours  and  49  minutes,  at  the 
distance  of  95  millions  of  miles,  and  round  its  axis  in  23  hours 
56  minutes  4  seconds.  The  former  is  called  its  anriuaJ^  and 
the  latter  its  diurnal  motion.  That  the  earth  is,  in  reality,  a 
moving  body,  is  a  fact  which  can  no  longer  be  called  in 
question ;  it  is  indeed  susceptible  of  the  clearest  demonstration. 
But  my  limits  will  not  permit  to  enter  into  a  detail  of  the  ar- 
guments by  which  it  is  supported.  I  have  already  adverted 
to  one  consideration,  from  which  its  diurnal  rotation  may  be 
inferred.*  Either  the  earth  moves  round  its  axis  every  day, 
or  the  whole  wiiverse  moves  round  it  in  the  same  time.  To 
suppose  the  latter  case  to  be  the  fact,  would  involve  a  reflec- 
tion on  the  wisdom  of  its  almighty  Author,  and  would  form 
the  only  exception  that  we  know,  to  that  beautiful  proportion, 
harmony,  and  simplicity,  which  appear  in  all  the  works  of 
nature.  Were  it  possible  to  construct  a  machine  as  large  as 
the  city  of  London,  and  to  apply  to  it  mechanical  powers 
sufficient  to  make  it  revolve  on  an  axis,  so  as  to  carry  round 
a  furnace  for  the  purpose  of  roasting  a  joint  of  mutton,  sus- 
pended in  the  centre  of  its  motion — while  we  might  admire 
the  ingenuity  and  the  energies  displayed  in  its  construction — 
all  mankind  would  unite  in  condemning  it  as  a  display  of  con- 
summate folly.  But  such  an  extravagant  piece  of  machinery 
would  not  be  half  so  preposterous  as  to  suppose,  that  the  vast 
universe  is  daily  revolving  around  our  little  globe,  and  that 
all  the  planetary  motions  have  an  immediate  respect  to  it.  And 
shall  we  dare  ascribe  to  him  who  is  "  the  only  wise  God," 
contrivances  which  we  would  pronounce  to  be  the  perfection 
of  folly  in  mankind  ?  It  is  recorded  of  the  astronomer  Al- 
phonsus,  king  of  Castile,  who  lived  in  the  13th  century,  that 
after  having  studied  the  Ptolemaic  system,  which  supposes  the 
earth  at  rest  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  he  uttered  the  fol- 
lowing impious  sentence :  "  If  I  had  been  of  God's  privy 
council,  vvhen  he  made  the  world,  I  would  have  advised  him 
better.""  So  that  false  conceptions  of  the  system  of  nature 
lead  to  erroneous  notions  of  that  adorable  Being  who  is  pos- 
sessed of  infinite  perfection.  We  find  that  bodies  much  larger 
than  the  earth  have  a  similar  rotation.  The  planet  Jupiter,  a 
globe  295,000  miles  in  circumference,  moves  round  its  axis  in 
less  than  ten  hours  ;  and  all  the  other  planetary  bodies,  on 
which  spots  have  been  discovered,  are  found  to  have  a  diurnal 
motion.  Besides,  it  is  found  to  be  a  universal  law  of  nature, 
that  smaller  globes  revolve  around  larger ;  but  there  is  no  ex- 
ample in  the  universe,  of  a  larger  body  revolving  around  a 

*  See  pp.  47,  48. 

18* 


210  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

smaller.  The  moon  revolves  around  the  earth,  but  she  is  much 
smaller  than  the  earth  ;  the  moons  which  move  around  Jupi- 
ter, Saturn,  and  Herschel,  are  all  less  than  their  primaries,  and 
the  pUuiets  which  perform  their  revolutions  "around  the  sun 
are  much  less  than  that  central  luminary. 

With  regard  to  the  annual  revolution  of  the  earth, — if  such 
a  motion  did  not  exist,  the  planetary  system  would  present  a 
scene  of  inextricable  confusion.  The  planets  would  some- 
times move  backwards,  sometimes  forwards,  and  at  other  times 
remain  stationary ;  and  would  describe  looped  curves,  so 
anomalous  and  confused,  that  no  man  in  his  senses  could  view 
the  all-wise  Creator  as  the  author  of  so  much  confusion.  But, 
by  considering  the  earth  as  revolving  in  an  orbit  between 
Venus  and  Mars,  (which  all  celestial  observations  completely 
demonstrate,)  all  the  apparent  irregularities  of  the  planetary 
motions  are  completely  solved  and  accounted  for;  and  the 
solar  system  presents  a  scene  of  beauty,  harmony,  and  grandeur, 
combined  with  a  simplicity  of  design,  which  characterizes  all 
the  works  of  Omnipotence. 

The  Moon. — Next  to  the  sun,  the  moon  is  to  us  the  most 
interesting  of  all  the  celestial  orbs.  She  is  the  constant  at- 
tendant of  the  earth,  and  revolves  around  it  in  27  days  8 
hours",  but  the  period  from  one  new  or  full  moon  to  another 
is  about  29  days  12  hours.  She  is  the  nearest  of  all  the  hea- 
venly bodies;  being  only  about  two  hundred  and  forty  thou- 
sand miles  distant  from  the  earth.  She  is  much  smaller  than 
the  earth  ;  being  only  2180  miles  in  diameter.  Her  surface, 
when  viewed  with  a  telescope,  presents  an  interesting  and  a 
variegated  aspect ;  being  diversified  with  mountains,  valleys, 
rocks,  and  plains,  in  every  variety  of  form  and  position. 
Some  of  these  mountains  form  long  and  elevated  ridges,  re- 
sembling the  chains  of  the  Alps  and  the  Andes  ;  while  others,  of 
a  conical  form,  rise  to  a  great  height,  from  the  middle  of  level 
plains,  somewhat  resembling  the  Peak  of  TenerifF.  But  the 
most  singular  feature  of  the  moon  is,  those  circular  ridges  and 
cavities  which  diversify  every  portion  of  her  surface.  A  range 
of  mountains  of  a  circular  form,  rising  three  or  four  miles 
above  the  level  of  the  adjacent  districts,  surrounds,  like  a 
mighty  rampart,  an  extensive  plain ;  and,  in  the  middle  of  this 
plain  or  cavity,  an  insulated  conical  hill  rises  to  a  considerable 
elevation.  Several  hundreds  of  these  circular  plains,  most  of 
which  are  considerably  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country,  may  be  perceived  with  a  good  telescope,  on  every 
region  of  the  lunar  surface.  They  are  of  all  dimensions, 
from  two  or  three  miles  to  forty  miles  in  diameter;  and,  if 


ASTROxXOMY.  2J1 

they  be  adorued  with  verdure,  they  must  present  to  the  view 
of  a  spectator,  placed  among  them,  a  more  variegated,  roman- 
tic, and  sublime  scenery  than  is  to  be  found  on  the  surface  of 
our  globe.  An  idea  of  some  of  these  scenes  may  be  acquired, 
by  conceiving  a  plain  of  about  a  hundred  miles  in  circumfe- 
rence,  encircled  with  a  range  of  mountains,  of  various  forms, 
three  miles  in  perpendicular  height,  and  having  a  mountain 
near  the  centre,  whose  top  reaches  a  mile  and  a  half  above 
the  level  of  the  plain.  From  the  top  of  this  central  moun- 
tain, the  whole  plain,  with  all  its  variety  of  objects,  would  be 
distinctly  visible ;  and  the  view  would  appear  to  be  bounded 
on  all  sides  by  a  lofty  amphitheatre  of  mountains,  in  every 
diversity  of  shape,  rearing  their  summits  to  the  sky.  From 
the  summit  of  the  circular  ridge,  the  conical  hill  in  the  centre, 
the  opposite  circular  range,  the  plain  below,  and  some  of  the 
adjacent  plains,  which  encompass  the  exterior  ridge  of  the 
mountains,  would  form  another  variety  of  view  ; — and  a  third 
variety  would  be  obtained  from  the  various  aspects  of  the 
central  mountain,  and  the  surrounding  scenery  as  viewed  from 
the  plains  below. 

The  lunar  mountains  are  of  all  sizes,  from  a  furlong  to  five 
miles  in  perpendicular  elevation.  Certain  luminous  spots, 
which  have  been  occasionally  seen  on  the  dark  side  of  the 
moon,  seem  to  demonstrate  that  fire  exists  in  this  planet.  Sir 
W.  Herschel,  and  several  other  astronomers,  suppose  that  they 
are  volcanoes  in  a  state  of  eruption.  It  would  be  a  more 
pleasing  idea,  and  perhaps  as  nearly  corresponding  to  fact,  to 
suppose  that  these  phenomena  are  owing  to  some  occasional 
splendid  illuminations  produced  by  the  lunar  inhabitants,  dur- 
ing their  long  nigh'ts.  Such  a  scene  as  the  burning  of  Moscow, 
the  conflagration  of  an  extensive  forest,  or  the  splendid  illumi- 
nation of  a  large  city  with  gas-light,  might  present  similar 
appearances  to  a  spectator  in  the  moon.  The  bright  spots  on 
the  moon  are  the  mountainous  regions  :  the  dark  spots  are  the 
plains,  or  more  level  parts  of  the  surface.  There  may  proba- 
bly be  rivers  or  small  lakes  on  this  planet ;  but  there  are  no 
seas  or  large  collections  of  water.  It  appears  highly  probable, 
from  the  observations  of  Schroeter,  that  the  moon  is  encom- 
passed with  an  atmosphere :  but  no  clouds,  rain,  or  snow, 
seem  to  exist  in  it.  The  illuminating  power  of  the  light  de- 
rived from  the  moon,  according  to  the  experiments  made  by 
Professor  Leslie,  is  about  the  one  hundred  andjifty  thousandlh 
part  of  the  illuminating  power  of  the  sun.  According  to  the 
experiments  of  M.  Bouguer,  it  is  only  as  1  to  300,000. 

The  moon  always  presents  the  same  face  to  us ;    which 


212  CHRISTIAN  rillLObOPHER. 

proves,  that  she  revolves  round  her  axis  in  the  same  time  that 
she  revolves  round  tlie  earth.  As  this  orb  derives  its  light 
from  the  sun,  and  reflects  a  portion  of  it  upon  the  earth,  so 
the  earth  performs  the  same  office  to  the  moon.  A  spectator 
on  the  lunar  surface  would  behold  the  earth,  like  a  luminous 
orb,  suspended  in  the  vault  of  heaven,  presenting  a  surface 
about  13  times  larger  than  the  moon  does  to  us,  and  appearing 
sometimes  gibbous,  sometimes  horned,  and  at  other  times  with 
a  round  full  face.  The  light  which  the  earth  reflects  upon  the 
dark,  side  of  the  moon  may  be  distinctly  perceived  by  a  com- 
mon telescope,  from  two  to  six  or  eight  days  after  the  change. 
Tiie  lunar  surface  contains  about  15  millions  of  square  miles, 
and  is  therefore  capable  of  containing  a  population  equal  to 
that  of  our  globe,  allowing  only  about  53  inhabitants  to  every 
square  mile.  That  this  planet  is  inhabited  by  sensitive  and 
intelligent  beings,  there  is  every  reason  to  conclude,  from  a 
consideration  of  the  sublime  scenery  with  which  its  surface  is 
adorned,  and  of  the  general  beneficence  of  the  Creator,  who 
appears  to  have  left  no  large  portion  of  his  material  creation 
without  animated  existences  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable,  that 
direct,  proofs  of  the  moon's  being  inhabited  may  hereafter  be 
obtained,  when  all  the  varieties  on  her  surface  shall  have  been 
more  minutely  explored.* 

The  planet  Mars. — Next  to  the  earth  and  moon,  the  planet 
Mars  performs  his  revolution  round  the  sun,  in  one  year  and 
ten  months,  at  the  distance  of  145  millions  of  miles.  His 
diameter  is  about  4200  miles,  and  he  is  distinguished  from  all 
the  other  planets  by  his  ruddy  appearance,  which  is  owing  to 
a  dense  atmosphere  with  which  he  is  environed.  With  a  good 
telescope,  his  surface  appears  diversified  by  a  variety  of  spots  ; 
by  the  motion  of  which  it  is  found,  that  he  turns  round  his 
axis  in  24  hours  and  40  minutes.  The  inclination  of  his  axis 
to  the  plane  of  his  orbit  being  about  28°  42',  the  days  and 
nights,  and  the  diflerent  seasons  in  this  planet,  will  bear  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  those  we  experience  in  our  terrestrial 
sphere.!  At  his  nearest  approach  to  the  earth,  his  distance 
from  us  is  about  50  millions  of  miles ;  and,  at  his  greatest 
distance,  he  is  about  240  millions  of  miles;  so  that  in  the 
former  case  he  appears  nearly  25  times  larger  than  in  the  latter. 

*  See  Appendix,  Note  IV. 

t  The  inflinalioii  of  the  earth's  nxis  to  the  ecliptic,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
the  plane  of  its  annual  orliit,  is  23°  28',  which  is  the  cause  of  tlie  diversity 
of  seasons,  and  of  the  different  length  of  days  and  nights.  Were  the  axis 
of  the  earth  pcppendicular  to  its  orbit,  as  is  the  case  with  the  planet  .Tupi- 
ter,  there  would  be  no  diversity  of  seasons. 


ASTRONOMY.  213 

To  a  spectator  in  this  planet  our  earth  will  appear,  alternately, 
as  a  morniiig  and  evening  star,  and  will  exhibit  all  the  phases 
of  the  moon,  just  as  Venus  does  to  us,  but  with  a  less  degree 
of  apparent  magnitude  and  splendour.  A  luminous  zone  has 
been  observed  about  the  poles  of  Mars,  which  is  subject  to 
successive  changes.  Sir  W.  Herschel  supposes  that  it  is  pro- 
duced by  the  reflection  of  the  sun's  light  from  his  frozen  re- 
gions, and  that  the  melting  of  these  masses  of  polar  ice  is  the 
cause  of  the  variation  in  its  magnitude  and  appearance.  This 
planet  moves,  in  its  orbit,  at  the  rate  of  tifty-five  thousand 
miles  an  hour. 

The  New  Planets. — Between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  .Ju- 
])iter,  four  planetary  bodies  have  been  lately  discovered,  ac- 
companied with  circumstances  somewhat  different  from  those 
of  the  other  bodies  which  compose  our  system.  They  are 
named  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno,  and  Vesta.  The  planet  Ceres 
was  discovered  at  Palermo  in  Sicily,  by  M.  Piazzi,  on  the  first 
day  of  the  present  century.  Jt  is  of  a  ruddy  colour,  and  ap- 
pears about  the  size  of  a  star  of  the  eighth  magnitude,  and  is 
consequently  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  It  performs  its  revo- 
lution in  four  years  and  seven  months,  at  the  distance  of 
two  hundred  and  sixty  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun,  and  is 
reckoned,  by  some  astronomers,  to  be  about  sixteen  hundred 
and  twenty-four  miles  in  diameter,  or  about  half  the  diameter 
of  Mercury.  Ft  appears  to  be  surrounded  with  a  large  dense 
atmasphere.  Pallas  was  discovered  the  following  year,  namely, 
on  the  28th  March,  1802,  by  Dr.  Olbers  of  Bremen.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  about  two  thousand  miles  in  diameter,  or  nearly 
the  size  of  the  moon.  It  revolves  about  the  sun  in  four  years 
and  seven  months,  or  nearly  in  the  same  time  as  Ceres,  at  the 
distance  of  two  hundred  and  sixty-six  millions  of  miles  ;  and 
is  surrounded  with  a  nebulosity  or  atmosphere,  above  four 
hundred  miles  in  height,  similar  to  that  of  Ceres.  The  planet 
Juno  was  discovered  on  the  1st  September,  1804,  by  Mr.  Hard- 
ing of  Bremen.  Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty-three  millions  of  miles;  its  revolution  is 
completed  in  four  years  and  one  hundred  and  thirty  days,  and 
its  diameter  is  computed  to  be  about  fourteen  hundred  and 
tv/enty-five  miles.  It  is  free  from  the  nebulosity  which  sur- 
rounds Pallas,  and  is  distinguished  from  all  the  other  planets 
by  the  great  eccentricity  of  its  orbit ;  being,  at  its  least  dis- 
tance from  the  sun,  only  one  hundred  and  eighty-nine  mil- 
lions of  miles,  and  at  its  greatest  distance,  three  hundred  and 
sixteen  millions.  Vesta  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Olbers  on  the 
29lh  March,  1807.     It  appears  like  a  star  of  the  fifth  or  sixth 


214  CHRISTlAxN   PHILOSOPHER. 

magnitude,  and  may  sometimes  be  distinguished  by  the  naked 
eve.  Its  lio-ht  is  more  intense  and  white  than  any  of  the  other 
three,  and  it  is  not  surrounded  with  any  nebulosity.  It  is 
di^tant  from  the  sun  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-live  mil- 
lions of  miles,  and  completes  its  revolutions  in  three  years  and 
two  hundred  and  forty  days.  Its  diameter  has  not  yet  been 
accurately  ascertained  ;  but,  from  the  intensity  of  its  light  and 
other  circumstances  it  is  concluded,  that  it  is  not  inferior  in 
magnitude  to  either  Pallas  or  Juno. 

These  planetary  globes  present  to  our  view  a  variety  of 
anomalies  and  singularities,  which  appear  incompatible  with 
the  regularity,  proportion,  and  harmony  which  were  formerly 
supposed  to  characterize  the  arrangements  of  the  solar  system. 
They  are  bodies  much  smaller  in  size  than  the  other  planets — 
they  revolve  nearly  at  ike  same  distances  from  the  sun,  and 
perform  their  revolutions  in  nearly  the  same  periods — their 
orbits  are  much  more  eccentric^  and  have  a  much  greater  de- 
gree of  inclination  to  the  ecliptic,  than  those  of  the  old 
planets — and,  what  is  altogether  singular,  (except  in  the  case 
of  comets,)  their  orbits  cross  each  other ;  so  that  there  is  a 
possibility  that  two  of  these  bodies  might  happen  to  interfere, 
and  to  strike  each  other,  in  the  course  of  their  revolutions. 
The  orbit  of  Ceres  crosses  the  orbit  of  Pallas.  Vesta  may 
sometimes  be  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  sun  than  either 
Ceres,  Pallas,  or  Juno,  although  its  mean  distance  is  less  than 
that  of  either  of  them,  by  several  millions  of  miles;  so  that 
the  orbit  of  Vesta  crosses  the  orbits  of  all  the  other  three. 
From  these  and  other  circumstances,  it  has,  with  a  high  de- 
gree of  probability,  been  concluded — that  these  four  planets 
are  the  fragments  of  a  large  celestial  body  which  once  revolved 
between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  which  had  been  burst  asunder 
by  some  immense  irruptive  force.  This  idea  seems  to  have 
occurred  to  Dr.  Olbers,  after  he  had  discovered  the  planet 
Pallas,  and  he  imagined  that  other  fragments  might  possibly 
exist.  He  concluded,  that,  if  they  all  diverged  from  the  same 
point,  "  they  ought  to  have  two  common  points  of  reunion, 
or  two  nodes  in  opposite  regions  of  the  heavens,  through 
which  all  the  planetary  fragments  must  sooner  or  later  pass.'' 
One  of  these  nodes  he  found  to  be  in  the  constellation  Virgo,  and 
the  other  in  the  Whale  ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  coincidence,  that 
it  was  in  the  latter  of  these  regions  that  the  planet  Juno  was 
discovered  by  Mr.  ITavding.  In  order  to  detect  the  remaining 
fragments,  (if  any  existed,)  Dr.  Olbers  examined,  three  times 
every  year,  all  the  small  stars  in  Virgo  and  the  Whale  ;  and  it 
was  actually  in  the  constellation  Virgo  that  he  discovered  the 


ASTRONOMY. 


215 


planet  Vesta.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  other  fragments  of  a 
similar  description  may  yet  be  discovered.  Sir  D.  Brewster 
attributes  the  fall  of  meteoric  stones*  to  the  smaller  fragments 
of  these  bodies  happening  to  come  within  the  sphere  of  the 
earth's  attraction.  His  ingenious  reasonings  on  this  subject, 
and  in  support  of  Dr.  Olbers'  hypothesis  above  stated,  may 
be  seen  in  Edin.  Encyc.  vol.  ii,  p.  641,  and  in  his  "  supple- 
mentary chapters  to  Ferguson's  Astronomy." 

The  facts  to  which  1  have  now  adverted  seem  to  unfold  a 
new  scene  in  the  history  of  the  dispensations  of  the  Almighty, 
and  to  warrant  the  conchision,  that  the  earth  is  not  the  only 
globe  in  the  universe  which  is  subject  to  physical  changes  and 
moral  revolutions. 

The  planet  Jupiter. — This  planet  is  four  hundred  and 
ninety  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  sun,  and  performs 
its  annual  revolution  in  nearly  twelve  of  our  years,  moving 
at  the  rate  of  twenty-nine  thousand  miles  an  hour.  It  is  the 
largest  planet  in  the  solar  system ;  being  eighty-nine  thousand 
miles  in  diameter,  or  about  fourteen  hundred  times  larger  than 
the  earth.  Its  motion  round  its  axis  is  performed  in  nine 
hours  and  fifty-six  minutes  ;  and,  therefore,  the  portions  of  its 
surface  about  the  equator  move  at  the  rate  of  twenty-eight 
thousand  miles  an  hour,  which  is  nearly  twenty-seven  times 
swifter  than  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation.  The  figure  of  Jupiter 
is  that  of  an  oblate  spheroid,  the  axis,  or  diameter,  passing 
through  the  poles,  being  about  six  thousand  miles  shorter 
than  that  passing  through  the  equator.  The  Earth,  Saturn,  and 
Mars,  are  also  spheroids ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  Mer- 
cury, Venus,  and  Herschel,  are  of  a  similar  figure,  though  the 
fact  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  by  actual  observation.  When 
viewed  with  a  telescope,  several  spots  have  been  occasionally 

*  Meteoric  stones,  or  what  are  generally  termed  aerolites,  are  stones 
which  sometimes  fall  from  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the 
earth.  The  substance  of  which  they  are  composed  is,  for  the  most  part, 
metallic  ;  but  the  ore  of  which  they  consist  is  not  to  be  i'oimd  in  the  same 
constituent  pro-portions,  in  any  terrestrial  substances.  Their  fall  is  gene- 
rally preceded  by  a  luminous  appearance,  a  hissing  noise,  and  a  loud  ex- 
plosion; and,  when  found  immediately  after  their  descent,  are  always  hot. 
Their  size  differs  from  small  fragments  of  inconsiderable  weight,  to  the 
most  ponderous  masses.  Some  of  the  larger  portions  of  these  stones  have 
been  found  to  weigh  from  three  hundred  pounds  to  several  tons ;  and  they 
have  often  descended  to  the  earth  with  a  force  sufficient  to  bury  them 
several  feet  under  the  soil.  Some  have  supposed  that  these  bodies  are 
projected  from  volcanoes  in  the  moon  ;  others,  that  they  proceed  from 
volcanoes  on  the  earth  ;  while  others  imagine  that  they  are  generated  in 
the  regions  of  the  atmosphere  ;  but  the  true  cause  is  probably  not  yet  ascer- 
tained. In  some  instances,  these  stones  have  penetrated  through  the  roofs 
of  house?,,  and  proved  destructive  to  the  inhabitants, 


216  ClIRlSTlAiN    PlIlLObOrHEn. 

discovered  on  the  surface  of  this  planet,  by  the  motion  of 
which  its  rotation  was  determined. 

But  what  chiefly  distinguishes  the  surface  of  Jupiter  is 
seveial  streaky  appearances,  or  dusky  stripes,  which  extend 
across  his  disk  in  lines  parallel  to  his  equator.  These  are 
generally  termed  his  belts.  Three  of  these  belts,  or  zones, 
nearly  equidistant  from  each  other,  are  most  frequently  ob- 
served ;  but  they  are  not  regular  or  constant  in  their  appear- 
ance.* Sometimes  only  one  is  to  be  seen,  sometimes  five,  and 
sometimes  seven  or  eight  have  been  visible ;  and  in  the  latter 
case,  two  of  them  have  been  known  to  disappear  during  the 
time  of  obseivation.  On  the  28Lh  of  May,  1780,  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel  perceived  "  the  whole  surface  of  Jupiter  covered  with 
small  curved  belts,  or  rather  lines,  that  were  not  continuous 
across  his  disk."  Though  these  belts  are  generally  parallel 
to  each  other,  yet  they  are  not  always  so.  Their  breadth  is 
likewise  variable ;  one  belt  having  been  observed  to  grow 
narrow,  while  another  in  its  neighbourhood  has  increased  in 
breackh,  as  if  the  one  had  flowed  into  the  other.  The  time 
of  their  continuance  is  also  uncertain  ;  sometimes  they  remain 
unchanged  for  several  months,  at  other  times,  new  belts  have 
been  formed  in  an  hour  or  two.  What  these  belts,  or  variable 
appearances  are,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  Some  have  re- 
garded them  as  strata  of  clouds  floating  in  the  atmos])here  of 
Jupiter;  while  others  imagine  that  they  are  the  marks  of 
great  physical  revolutions  which  are  perpetually  changing  the 
surface  of  that  planet.  The  former  opinion  appears  the  most 
probable.  But  whatever  be  tlie  nature  of  these  belts,  the 
sudden  clianges  to  which  they  are  occasionally  subject  seem 
to  indicate  the  rapid  operation  of  some  powerful  physical 
agency;  for  some  of  them  are  more  than  five  thousand  miles 
in  breackh  ;  and  since  they  have  been  known  to  disappear  in 
the  space  of  an  iiour  or  two,  and  even  during  the  time  of  a 
casual  observation — agents  more  powerful  than  any  with  wiiich 
we  are  acquainted  must  have  produced  so  extensive  an  effect. 

Jupiter  is  attended  by  four  satellites,  or  moons,  which  pre- 
sent a  very  beautiful  appearance  when  viewed  through  a  tele- 
scope. The  first  moon,  or  that  nearest  the  planet,  is  230,000 
miles  distant  from  its  centre,  and  goes  round  it  in  42|  hours; 
and  will  appear  from  its  surface  four  times  larger  than  our  moon 

*  A  representation  of  these  belts,  in  the  positions  in  which  they  most 
frequently  appear,  is  exhibited  in  the  engraving  at  p.  16,  Fig.  2. — Fig.  1 
represents  the  double  ring  of  Saturn  as  it  appears  when  viewed  through  a 
powerful  telescope.  Figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  represent  Saturn,  Jupiter, 
Herschel,  the  earth,  and  moon,  in  their  relative  sizes  and  proportions. 


ASTRONOMY.  *  217 

does  to  us.  The  second  moon,  being  farther  distant,  will  ap- 
pear about  the  size  of  ours;  the  third,  somewhat  less;  and 
the  fourth,  which  is  a  million  of  miles  distant  from  Jupiter, 
and  takes  sixteen  days  to  go  round  him,  will  appear  only 
about  one-third  the  diameter  of  our  moon.  These  moons 
suffer  frequent  eclipses  from  passing  through  Jupiter's  shadow, 
in  the  same  way  as  our  moon  is  eclipsed  by  passing  through 
the  shadow  of  the  earth.  By  the  eclipses  of  these  moons, 
the  motion  of  light  was  ascertained;  and  they  are  found  to  be 
of  essential  use,  in.  determining  the  longitude  ot^  places  on  the 
surface  of  our  globe.  This  planet,  if  seen  from  its  nearest 
moon,  will  present  a  surface  a  thousand  times  as  large  as  our 
moon  does  to  us,  and  will  appear  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  a 
half  moon,  a  gibbous  phase,  and  a  full  moon,  in  regular  suc- 
cession, every  42  hours. 

The  following  figure  exhibits  a  view  of  Jupiter's  belts  and 
satellites  as  seen  through  a  good  telescope  :  but  they  do  not 
always  appear,  two  on  each  side,  as  here  represented,  but  in 
every  variety  of  position ;  and  sometimes  all  on  the  same 
side,  in  the  order  of  their  distances ;  and  they  seem  to  move 
from  one  side  to  another,  in  nearly  straight  lines,  on  account 
of  our  eye  being  nearly  on  a  level  witli  the  planes  of  their 
orbits. 

Fig.  21. 


Jupiter's  axis  being  nearly  perpendicular  to  his  orbit,  he 
has  no  sensible  change  of  seasons,  such  as  we  experience  on 
the  eartli.  Were  we  placed  on  the  surface  of  this  planet,  with 
the  limited  powers  of  vision  we  now  possess,  our  earth  and 
moon  would  entirely  disappear,  as  if  they  were  blotted  out 
from  ihe  man  of  rroaiion  ;  and  t)ie  infiahitants  f>f  these  rpffions 

J9  ^ 


218  CHRISTIAN  PHII.OSOrilER. 

must  have  much  better  eyes  than  ours,  if  tliey  know  that  there 
is  such  a  globe  as  the  eartii  in  the  universe. 

The  planet  Saturn. — This  planet  is  900  millions  of  miles 
distant  from  the  sun,  being  nearly  double  the  distance  of 
Jupiter.  Its  diameter  is  79,000  miles,  and  consequently,  it 
is  more  than  nine  hundred  times  the  bulk  of  the  earth.  It 
takes  29|  years  to  complete  its  revolution  about  the  sun ; 
bnt  its  diurnal  motion  is  completed  in  ten  hours  and  sixteen 
minutes ;  so  that  the  year  in  this  planet  is  nearly  thirty  times 
the  length  of  ours,  while  the  day  is  shorter,  by  more  than 
one-half.  The  year,  therefore,  contains  about  twenty-five 
thousand,  one  hundred  and  fifty  days,  or  periods  of  its  diurnal 
rotation,  which  is  equal  to  10759  of  our  days.  Saturn  is  of 
a  spheroidal  figure,  or  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  an  orange; 
his  equatorial  being  more  than  six  thousand  miles  longer  than 
his  polar  diameter.  His  surface,  like  that  of  Jupiter,  is  diver- 
sified with  belts  and  dark  spots.  Sir  W.  Herschel,  at  certain 
times,  perceived  five  belts  on  his  surface,  three  of  which  were 
dark,  and  two  bright.  The  dark  belts  had  a  yellowish  tinge, 
and  generally  covered  a  larger  zone  of  the  disk  of  Saturn 
than  the  belts  of  Jupiter  occupy  upon  his  surface.  On  account 
of  the  great  distance  of  this  planet  from  the  sun,  the  light  it 
receives  from  that  luminary  is  only  the  ninetieth  part  of  what 
we  enjoy  ;  but,  by  calculation,  it  is  found  that  this  quantity  is  a 
thousand  times  greater  than  the  light  which  the  full  moon  affords 
to  us.  Besides,  it  is  surrounded  by  no  fewer  than  seven  moons, 
which  supply  it  with  light  in  the  absence  of  the  sun.  Five 
of  these  moons  were  discovered  during  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, by  Huygens  and  Cassini ;  and  the  sixth  and  seventh 
were  discovered  by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  in  1789,  soon  after  his 
large  forty  feet  reflecting  telescope  was  constructed.  These 
moons,  and  also  those  which  accompany  Jupiter,  are  estimated 
to  be  not  much  less  than  the  earth  in  magnitude,  and  are  found, 
like  our  moon,  to  revolve  round  their  axes  in  the  same  time 
in  which  tliey  revolve  about  their  respective  primaries. 

Rings  of  Saturn. — The  most  extraordinary  circumstance 
connected  with  this  planet  is  the  plienomenon  of  a  douhle 
ring,  which  surrounds  its  body,  but  nowhere  touches  it,  being 
thirty  thousand  miles  distant  from  any  part  of  the  planet,  and 
is  carried  along  with  the  planet  in  its  circuit  around  the  sun. 
This  is  the  most  singular  and  astonishing  object  in  the  whole 
range  of  tlie  planetary  system  ;  no  other  planet  being  found 
environed  with  so  wonderful  an  appendage  :  and  the  planets 
which  niay  belong  to  other  systems,  being  placed  beyond  the 
reach    of  our    observations,  no    idea    can    be  formed  of  the 


ASTKONOMY.  219 

peculiar  apparatus  with  which  any  of  them  may  be  furnished. 
This  double  ring  consists  of  two  concentric  rings,  detached 
from  each  other;  -the  innermost  of  which  is  nearly  three 
times  as  broad  as  the  outermost.  The  outside  diameter  of 
the  exterior  ring  is  204,000  miles ;  and  consequently,  in  cir- 
cumference, will  measure  six  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
miles^  or  eighty  times  the  diameter  of  our  globe.  Its  breadth 
is  7200  miles,  or  nearly  the  diameter  of  the  earth.  Were  four 
hundred  and  iifty  globes,  of  the  size  of  the  earth,  placed  close 
to  one  another,  on  a  plane,  this  immense  ring  would  enclose 
the  whole  of  them,  together  with  all  the  interstices  or  open 
spaces  between  the  different  globes.  The  outside  diameter  of 
the  innermost  ring  is  184,000  miles,  and  its  breadth  20,000 
miles,  or  about  2|  times  broader  than  the  diameter  of  the 
earth.  The  dark  space,  or  interval  between  the  two  rings,  is 
2800  miles.  The  breadth  of  both  the  rings,  including  the 
dark  space  between  them,  is  thirty  thousand  miles,  which  is 
equal  to  the  distance  of  the  innermost  ring  from  the  body  of 
Saturn. 

The  following  figure  represents  a  view  of  Saturn  and  his 
rings,  as  they  would  appear  were  our  eye  perpendicular  to 
one  of  the  planes  of  those  rings ;  but  our  eye  is  never  so 
much  elevated  above  either  plane,  as  to  have  the  visual  ray 
standing  at  right  angles  to  it :  it  is  never  elevated  more  than 
thirty  degrees  above  the  planes  of  the  rings.  When  we  view 
Saturn  through  a  telescope,  we  always  see  the  ring  at  an  ob- 
lique angle,  so  that  it  appears  of  an  oval  form,  the  outward 
circular  rim  being  projected  into  an  ellipsis  more  or  less  ob- 
long, according  to  the  different  degrees  of  obliquity  with  which 
it  is  viewed,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  figure  of  Saturn  in  the 
copperplate  engraving,  at  p.  16. 

These  rings  cast  a  deep  shadow  upon  the  planet,  which 
proves  that  they  are  not  shmmg  fluids^  but  composed  oi  solid 
matter.  They  appear  to  be  possessed  of  a  higher  reflective 
power  than  the  surface  of  Saturn  :  as  the  light  reflected  by 
them  is  more  brilliant  than  that  of  tlie  planet.  One  obvious 
use  of  this  double  ring  is,  to  reflect  light  upon  the  planet  in 
the  absence  of  the  sun :  in  all  probability,  it  also  serves  as 
an  ample  habitation  for  myriads  of  sensitive  and  intelligent 
beings ;  for  the  surfaces  of  the  two  rings  contain  no  less  than 
228  millions  of  square  miles,  or  about  six  hundred  times 
more  than  all  tlie  habitable  parts  of  our  globe,  and  it  is  not 
likely  that,  in  the  wise  arrangements  of  the  Creator,  such  an 
immense  space  would  be  left  destitute  of  inhabitants ;  what 
other  purposes  it  may  be  intended  to  subserve,  in  the  system 


^20 


cmiisTiA.v  ruiLosoruLK 
Fig.  22. 


of  Saturn,  is  at  present  to  us  unknown.  The  sun  illuminates 
one  side  of  it  during  fifteen  years,  or  one  half  of  the  period 
of  the  planet's  revolution ;  and,  during  the  next  fifteen  years, 
the  other  side  is  enlightened  in  its  turn.  Twice  in  the  course 
of  thirty  years,  there  is  a  short  period,  during  which  neither 
side  is  enlightened,  and  when,  of  course,  it  ceases  to  be  visible; 
namely,  at  the  time  when  the  sun  ceases  to  shine  on  one  side, 
and  is  about  to  shine  on  the  other.  It  revolves  round  its  axis, 
and  consequently  around  Saturn,  in  ten  hours  and  a  half, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  a  thousand  miles  in  a  minute,  or  fifty- 
eight  times  swifter  than  the  earth's  equator.  When  viewed 
from  the  middle  zone  of  the  planet,  in  the  absence  of  the  sun, 
the  rings  will  appear  like  vast  luminous  arches  extending 
along  the  canopy  of  heaven,  from  the  eastern  to  the  western 
liorizon  ;  having  an  apparent  breadth  equal  to  a  hundred  times 
the  apparent  diameter  of  our  moon,  and  will  be  seen  darkened 
about  the  middle,  by  the  shadow  of  Saturn.* 

*  See  ihe  engraving,  p.  16,  Fig.  7,  which   represents  a  view  of  the  ap- 
pearance %\iiich  till'  rinjjs  and  niouns  of  Satnrn  will  exhibit,  iu  certain  cases, 


ASTRONOMY.  22i 

There  is  no  other  planet  in  the  solar  system,  whose  firma- 
ment will  present  such  a  variety  of  splendid  and  magnificent 
objects,  as  that  of  Saturn.  The  various  aspects  of  his  seven 
moons,  one  rising  above  the  horizon,  while  another  is  setting, 
and  a  third  approaching  to  the  meridian ;  one  entering  into  an 
eclipse,  and  another  emerging  from  it ;  one  appearing  as  a 
crescent,  and  another  with  a  gibbous  phase;  and  sometimes 
the  whole  of  them  shining  in  the  same  hemisphere,  in  one 
bright  assemblage  : — the  majestic  motions  of  the  rings, — at 
one  time  illuminating  the  sky  with  their  splendour,  and 
eclipsing  the  stars  ;  at  another,  casting  a  deep  shade  over 
certain  regions  of  the  planet,  and  unveiling  to  view  the  won- 
ders of  the  starry  firmament — are  scenes  worthy  of  the  ma- 
jesty of  the  Divine  Being  to  unfold,  and  of  rational  creatures 
to  contemplate.  Such  magnificent  displays  of  wisdom  and 
omnipotence  lead  us  to  conclude,  that  the  numerous  splendid 
objects  connected  with  this  planet  were  not  created  merely  to 
shed  their  lustie  on  naked  rocks  and  barren  sands ;  but  that 
an  immense  population  of  intelligent  beings  is  placed  in  those 
regions,  to  enjoy  the  bounty,  and  to  adore  the  perfections  of 
their  great  Creator. 

The  double  ring  of  Saturn,  when  viewed  through  a  good 
telescope,  generally  appears  like  a  luminous  handle  on  each 
side  of  the  planet,  with  a  dark  interval  between  the  interior 
edge  of  the  ring,  and  the  convex  body  of  Saturn  ;  which  is 
owing  to  its  oblique  position  with  respect  to  our  line  of  vision. 
When  its  outer  edge  is  turned  directly  towards  the  earth,  it 
becomes  invisible,  or  appears  like  a  dark  stripe  across  the 
disk  of  the  planet  as  it  did  in  1832.  This  phenomenon  hap- 
pens once  every  fifteen  years. 

The  Planet  Herschel. — This  planet,  which  is  also  known 
by  the  names  of  the  Georgium  Sidus^  and  Uranus^  was  dis- 
covered by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  on  the  13th  of  March,  1781.  It 
is  the  most  distant  planet  from  the  sun  that  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered ;  being  removed  at  no  less  than  eighteen  hundred 
millions  of  miles  from  that  luminary,  which  is  nineteen  times 


about,  midnight,  when  beheld  from  a  point  20  or  30  degrees  north  from  his 
equator.  The  shade  on  the  upper  part  of  the  rings  represents  the  shadow 
of  the  body  of  Saturn.  This  shadow  will  appear  to  move  gradually  to  the 
west  as  the  morning  approaches.  From  observations  which  were  made 
some  time  ago  by  Captain  Kater,  Professor  Quetelet,  and  others,  it  has 
been  surmised  that  the  outer  ring  of  Saturn  is  divided  into  several  smaller 
rings.  Kater  states,  that  he  "saw  the  outer  ring  separated  by  numerous 
dark  divisions  extremely  close,  one  stronger  than  the  rest  dividing  the  ring 
about  equally."  Such  surmises,  however,  require  to  be  confirmed  by 
subsequent  observations. 

19* 


222  ciniiMiA.N  riiiLosoriiER. 

farther  than  the  earth  is  from  the  sun — a  distance  so  great, 
thai  a  cannon  ball,  flying  at  the  rate  of  four  hundred  and 
eighty  nnles  an  hour,  would  not  reach  it  in  four  hundred 
years'.  Its  diameter  is  about  thirt3^-tive  thousand  miles  ;  and 
of  conrse,  it  is  about  eighty  times  larger  than  the  earth.  It 
appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude ;  but  can  seldom  be 
disiinguished  by  the  naked  eye.  It  takes  about  eighty-three 
years  and  a  half  to  complete  its  revolution  round  the  sun  ;  and, 
though  it  is  the  slowest  moving  body  in  the  system,  it  moves 
at  the  rate  of  fifteen  thousand  miles  an  hour.  As  the  degree 
of  sensible  heat  in  any  planet  does  not  appear  to  depend  al- 
together on  its  nearness  to  the  sun,  the  temperature  of  this 
planet  may  be  as  mild  as  that  which  obtains  in  the  most  genial 
climate  of  our  globe.*  The  diameter  of  the  sun,  as  seen  from 
Herschel,  is  little  more  than  the  apparent  diameter  of  Venus 
as  seen  by  the  naked  eye ;  and  the  light  which  it  receives 
from  that  luminary  is  three  hundred  and  sixty  times  less  than 
■what  we  experience  ;  yet  this  proportion  is  found  by  calcula- 
tion to  be  equal  to  the  effect  which  would  be  produced  by 
two  hundred  and  forty-eight  of  our  full  moons ;  and,  in  the 
absence  of  the  sun,  there  are  six  moons  which  reflect  light 
upon  this  distant  planet,  all  of  which  were  discovered  likewise 
by  Sir  W.  Herschel.  Small  as  the  proportion  of  light  is, 
which  this  planet  receives  from  the  sun,  it  is  easy  to  conceive, 
that  beings  similar  to  man,  placed  on  the  surface  of  this  globe, 
with  a  slight  modiflcation  of  their  organs  of  vision,  might  be 
made  to  perceive  objects  with  a  clearness  and  distinctness 
even  superior  to  what  we  can  do.  We  have  only  to  suppose, 
that  the  Creator  has  formed  their  eyes  with  pupils  capable  of 
a  much  larger  expansion  than  ours;  and  has  endued  their  re- 
iina  with  a  much  greater  degree  of  nervous  sensibility.  At 
all  events,  we  may  rest  assured,  that  He  who  has  placed  sen- 
tient beings  in  any  region,  has,  by  laws  with  which  we  are 
partly  unacquainted,  adapted  the  constitution  of  the  inhabitant 
to  the  nature  of  tlie  habitation. 


'•  Strange  and  amazing  must  the  diflerence  be, 

Twixt  this  dull  planet  and  bright  Mercury  ! 

Yet  reason  says,  nor  can  we  doubt  at  all, 

Millions  of  beings  dwell  on  either  ball, 

With  consiitutions  fitted  for  that  spot 

Where  Providence,  all-wise,  has  fixed  their  lot," — Baker. 

The  celestial  globes  which  I  have  now  described,  are  all 
*  See  Note  p.  207. 


ASTRONOMY.  223 

the  planets  which  are  at  present  known  to  belong  to  the 
solar  system.  It  is  probable  that  other  planetary  bodies  may 
yet  be  discovered  between  the  orbits  of  Saturn  and  Herschel, 
and  even  far  beyond  the  orbit  of  the  latter ;  and  it  is  also  not 
improbable,  that  planets  may  exist  in  the  immense  interval  of 
thirty -seven  millions  of  miles  between  Mercury  and  the  sun.* 
These  (if  any  exist)  can  be  detected  only  by  a  series  of  day 
observations,  made  with  equatorial  telescopes ;  as  they  could 
not  be  supposed  to  be  seen,  after  sunset,  on  account  of  their 
proximity  to  the  sun.  Five  prhnaryf  planets,  and  eight 
secondaries,  have  been  discovered  within  the  last  sixty  years ; 
and,  therefore,  we  have  no  reason  to  conclude,  that  all  the 
bodies  belonging  to  our  system  have  yet  been  detected,  till 
every  region  of  the  heavens  be  more  fully  explored. 

Comets. — Besides  the  planetary  globes  to  which  I  have 
now  adverted,  there  is  a  class  of  celestial  bodies  which  occa- 
sionally appear  in  the  heavens,  to  which  the  name  of  cornels 
has  been  given.  They  are  distinguished  from  the  other 
celestial  bodies,  by  their  ruddy  appearance,  and  by  a  long 
train  of  light,  called  the  tail,  which  sometimes  extends  over 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  heavens,  and  which  is  so  trans- 
parent, that  the  stars  may  be  seen  through  it.  The  tail  is  al- 
ways directed  to  that  part  of  the  heavens  which  is  opposite  to 
the  sun,  and  increases  in  size  as  it  approaches  him,  and  is 
again  gradually  diminished,  as  the  comet  flies  off  to  the  more 
distant  regions  of  space.  Their  apparent  magnitude  is  very 
difl!erent;  sometimes  they  appear  only  of  the  bigness  of  the 
fixed  stars  ;  at  other  times  they  equal  the  diameter  of  Venus  ; 
and  sometimes  they  have  appeared  nearly  as  large  as  the 
moon.  They  traverse  the  heavens  in  all  directions,  and  cross 
the  orbits  of  the  planets.  When  examined  through  a  tele- 
scope, they  appear  to  consist  of  a  dark  central  nucleus,  sur- 
rounded by  a  dense  atmosphere,  or  mass  of  vapours.     They 

*  The  author,  some  years  ago,  described  a  method  by  which  the 
planets  (if  any)  within  the  orbit  of  Mercury,  may  be  discovered  in  the 
day  time,  by  means  of  a  simple  contrivance  for  intercepting  the  solar 
rays,  and  the  frequent  application,  by  a  number  of  observers,  of  powerful 
telescopes,  to  a  certain  portion  of  the  sky,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sun. 
The  details  of  this  plan  have  not  yet  been  published ;  but  the  reader 
will  see  them  alluded  to,  in  No.  V.  of  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Jour- 
nal, for  July,  1820,  p.  191. 

t  A  primary  planet  is  that  which  revolves  round  the  sun  as  a  centre: 
as  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  A  secondary  planet  is  one  which  re- 
volves round  a  primary  planet  as  its  centre  ;  as  the  moon,  and  the 
sateUites  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn.  The  primary  planets  are  distinguished 
from  the  fixed  stars,  by  the  steadiness  of  their  light ;  not  having  a 
tirinkling  appearance,  as  the  stars  exhibit. 


224  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

have  been  ascertained  to  move  in  long  narrow  ellipses  or  ovals^ 
around  t\\e  sun  ;  some  of  them,  on  their  nearest  approach  to 
him,  having  been  within  a  million  of  miles  of  his  centre:  and 
they  llv  off  to  a  region  several  thousands  of  millions  of  miles 
distant!  When  near  the  sun,  they  move  with  amazing  velo- 
city. The  velocity  of  the  comet  which  appeared  in  1680, 
according  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  calculation,  was  eight  hun- 
(h-ed  and  eighty  thousand  miles  an  hour.  They  appear  to  be 
bodies  of  no  great  density,  and  their  size  seldom  exceeds  that 
of  the  moon.  The  length  of  the  tails  of  some  comets  has 
been  estimated  at  fifty  millions  of  miles.  Accordmg  to  Sir 
W.  HerschePs  computations,  the  solid  nucleus,  or  central 
part  of  the  comet  which  appeared  in  1811,  was  only  four 
hundred  and  twenty-eight  miles  in  diameter;  but  the  real 
diameter  of  the  head  or  nebulous  portion  of  the  comet,  he 
computed  to  be  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  thousand 
miles.  The  length  of  its  tail  he  computed  to  be  above  one 
hundred  millions  of  miles,  and  its  breadth  nearly  fifteen  mil- 
lions. It  was  nearest  to  the  earth  on  the  11th  October,  when 
its  distance  was  one  hundred  and  thirteen  millions  of  miles. 
The  number  of  comets  which  have  occasionally  been  seen 
within  the  limits  of  our  system,  since  the  commencement  of 
the  Christian  era,  is  about  five  hundred,  of  which  tiie  paths 
or  orbits  of  more  than  a  hundred  have  been  calculated. 

As  these  bodies  cross  the  paths  of  the  planets  in  every  di- 
rection, there  is  a  possibility  that  some  of  them  might  strike 
against  the  earth  in  their  approach  to  the  sun  ;  and,  were  this 
to  happen,  the  consequences  would  be  awful  beyond  descrip- 
tion. But  we  may  rest  assured,  that  that  Almighty  Bemg  who 
at  first  launched  them  into  existence,  directs  all  their  motions, 
however  complicated  ;  and  that  the  earth  shall  remain  secure 
against  all  such  concussions  from  celestial  agents,  till  the  pur- 
poses of  his  moral  government  in  this  world  shall  be  fully 
accomplished.  What  regions  these  bodies  visit,  when  they 
pass  beyond  the  limits  of  our  view ;  upon  what  errands  they 
are  sent,  when  they  again  revisit  the  central  parts  of  our  sys- 
tem;  what  is  the  difference  in  their  physical  constitution,  from 
that  of  the  sun  and  planets ;  and  what  important  ends  they 
are  destined  to  accomplish  in  the  economy  of  the  universe, 
are  inquiries  which  naturally  arise  in  the  mind,  but  which 
surpass  the  limited  powers  of  the  human  understanding  at 
present  to  determine.  Of  this,  however,  we  may  rest  assured, 
tiiat  they  were  not  created  in  vain  ;  that  they  subserve  pur- 
poses worthy  of  the  infinite  Creator ;  and  that,  wherever  he 


ASTRONOMY.  225 

has  exerted  his  power,  there  also  he  manifests  his  wisdom  and 
beneficence.* 

Such  is  a  general  outline  of  the  leading  facts  connected  with 
that  system  to  which  our  earth  belongs.  Though  the  energies 
of  Divine  power  had  never  been  exerted  beyond  the  limits  of 
this  system,  it  would  remain  an  eternal  monument  of  the  wis- 
dom and  omnipotence  of  its  Author.  Independently  of  the  sun, 
which  is  a  vast  universe  in  itself,  and  of  the  numerous  comets 
which  are  continually  traversing  its  distant  regions,  it  con- 
tains a  mass  of  material  existence,  arranged  in  the  most  beau- 
tiful order,  two  thousand  five  hundred  times  hirger  than  our 
globe.     From  late  observations,  there  is  the  strongest  reason 

*  The  periodical  revolutions  of  the  greater  number  of  comets  are  ac- 
complished only  in  long  periods  of  time  ;  some  of  them  requiring  hundreds, 
and  even  thousands  of  years  to  finish  their  circuits.  But,  of  late  years,  two 
comets  have  been  discovered,  whose  periodic  revolutions  are  extremely 
short.  These  are,  1st.,  The  comet  of  Encke,  whose  periodic  revolution  is 
only  1200  days,  or  3  years  and  three-tenths,  and  becomes  visible  ten  times 
in  33  years.  It  was  discovered  at  Marseilles,  by  M.  Pons,  on  the  28th 
November,  1818,  and  soon  after  M.  Encke  of  Berlin  determined  its  period 
by  incontestable  calculations.  This  comet  has  since  regularly  made  its 
appearance.  It  was  seen  in  Australia,  in  June,  1822,  and  since  that  time 
in  Europe,  in  1825,  1828,  1832,  1835,  and  1838.  This  comet  is  very  smnl;  ; 
its  light  is  feeble  ;  it  has  no  tail,  and  it  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  except 
in  very  favourable  circumstances.  The  other  comet  to  which  we  allude 
is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Biela's,  and  sometimes  Gambarfs  comet. 
This  comet  was  first  perceived  at  Johanisberg,  on  the  27th  of  February, 
1826,  by  M.  Biela,  and  10  days  afterwards  by  M.  Gambart  at  Marseilles, 
who  calculated  its  orbit,  and  determined  the  period  of  its  revolution  to  be 
2460  days,  or  nearly  6|  years.  The  predicted  appearance  of  this  comet  in 
1832  produced  considerable  alarm  on  the  continent,  particularly  in  France  ; 
as  some  German  journalists  had  predicted  that  it  would  cross  the  earth's 
orbit,  near  the  point  at  which  the  earth  would  be  at  that  time,  and  cause 
the  destruction  of  our  globe.  This  comet  is  a  small  body  wiihout  a 
tail,  or  any  appearance  whatever  of  a  solid  nucleus,  and  it  is  not  distin 
guishable  by  the  naked  eye.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  observations 
which  may  hereafter  be  made  on  these  comets,  whose  return  is  so  frequent, 
•will  lead  to  more  definite  and  accurate  views  of  the  nature  and  destination 
of  these  singular  bodies.  The  only  other  comet  whose  period  is  deter- 
mined is  that  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  Halle i/'s  comet.  This  comet 
was  observed  by  Dr.  Halley  in  1682,  and,  on  calculating  its  elements,  he 
was  led  to  conclude  that  it  was  identical  with  the  great  comets  of  1456, 
1531,  and  1607  ;  and  that  its  period  is  75  or  76  years.  He  accordingly 
ventured  to  predict  that  it  would  again  return  about  the  latter  part  of  1753 
or  the  beginning  of  1759.  It  actually  reappeared  near  the  end  of  Decem- 
ber, 1758,  and  arrived  at  its  perihelion  on  the  13th  March,  1759;  and  it 
again  made  its  appearance,  according  to  prediction,  in  September  and  Oc- 
tober, 1835,  having  been  seen  in  the  panicular  positions  previously  pre- 
dicted, a  considerable  time  before  it  was  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The 
appearance  of  this  comet,  so  near  the  time  predicted  by  astronomers,  is  a 
clear  proof  of  the  accuracy  which  has  been  introduced  into  astronomical 
calculations,  and  the  soundness  of  the  principles  on  which  astronoiners 
proceed.  The  circumstance  likewise  shows  us,  that^  comets  in  general 
are  perma?i(7tt  bodies,  belonging  to  that  system  of  which  we  fjrm  a  part. 


226  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

to  conclude,  lliat  the  sun,  along  with  all  this  vast  assemblage 
of  bodies,  is  carried  through  the  regions  of  the  universe,  to- 
wards some  distant  point  of  space,  or  around  some  wide  cir- 
cumference, at  the  rate  of  more  than  sixty  thousand  miles  an 
liour ;  and  if  so,  it  is  highly  probable,  if  not  absolutely  cer- 
tain, that  we  shall  never  again  occupy  that  portion  of  absolute 
space,  through  which  we  are  this  moment  passing,  during  all 
the  succeeding  ages  of  eternity. 

Such  a  glorious  system  must  have  been  brought  into  exist- 
ence to  subserve  purposes  worthy  of  the  infinite  wisdom  and 
benevolence  of  the  Creator.  To  suppose  that  the  distant 
globes  of  which  it  is  composed,  with  their  magnificent  appa- 
ratus of  rings  and  moons,  were  created  merely  for  the  ^pur- 
pose of  aflbrding  a  few  astronomers,  in  these  latter  times,  a 
peep  of  them  through  their  glasses,  would  be  inconsistent  with 
every  principle  of  reason  ;  and  would  be  charging  him  who 
is  the  Source  of  wisdom,  with  conduct  which  we  would  pro- 
nounce to  be  folly  in  the  sons  of  men.  Since  it  appears,  so 
far  as  our  observation  extends,  that  matter  exists  solely  for 
the  sake  of  sensitive  and  intelligent  beings,  and  that  the  Creator 
made  nothing  in  vain — it  is  a  conclusion  to  which  we  are 
necessarily  led,  that  the  planetary  globes  are  inhabited  by 
various  orders  of  intellectual  beings,  who  participate  in  the 
bounty,  and  celebrate  the  glory  of  their  Creator. 

When  this  idea  is  taken  into  consideration,  it  gives  a  strik- 
ing emphasis  to  such  sublime  declarations  of  the  sacred  volume 
as  these  : — "  All  nations  before  him  are  as  nothing — He  sitteth 
upon  the  circle  of  the  earth,  and  the  inhabitants  thereof  are  as 
grashoppers — the  nations  are  as  tlie  drop  of  a  bucket — all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  world  are  reputed  as  nothing  in  his  sight; 
and  he  doth  according  to  his  will  in  the  armies  of  heaven, 
and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth — Thou  hast  made 
heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heavens,  with  all  their  hosts ;  and 
thou  preservest  them  all ;  and  the  host  of  heaven  icorshippeth 
thee — When  I  consider  thy  heavens,  what  is  man^  that  thou  art 
mindful  of  him !"  If  the  race  of  Adam  were  the  principal  in- 
telligences in  the  universe  of  God,  such  passages  would  be 
stripped  of  all  their  sublimity,  would  degenerate  into  mere 
hyperboles,  and  be  almost  without  meaning.  If  man  were  the 
only  rational  being  who  inhabited  the  material  world,  as 
some  arrogantly  imagine,  it  would  be  no  wonder  at  all  that 
God  should  be  "  mindful  of  him ;"  nor  could  "  all  the  in- 
habitants o{  this  world,''  with  any  propriety,  be  compared  to 
"a  drop  of  a  bucket,"  and  be  "reputed  as  nothing  in  his 
sight."     Such  declarations  would  be  contrary  to  fact,  if  this 


ASTRONOMY. 


227 


supposition  were  admitted  ;  for  it  assumes,  that  man  holds  the 
prhicij)al  station  in  the  visible  universe.  The  expressions — 
"  The  heavens,  the  heaven  of  heavens,"  and  "  the  host  of 
heaven  worshipping  God,"  would  also,  on  this  supposition, 
degenerate  into  something  approaching  to  mere  inanity.  These 
expressions,  if  they  signify  any  thing  that  is  worthy  of  an 
inspired  teacher  to  communicate,  evidently  imply,  that  the 
universe  is  vast  and  extensive,  beyond  the  range  of  human 
comprehension — that  it  is  peopled  with  myriads  of  inhabitants 
— that  these  inhabitants  are  possessed  of  intellectual  natures, 
capable  of  appreciating  the  perfections  of  their  Creator, — and 
that  they  pay  him  a  tribute  of  rational  adoration  :  "The  host 
of  heaven  worshippeth  thee."  So  that  the  language  of  Scrip- 
ture is  not  only  consistent  with  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of 
worlds,  but  evidently  supposes  their  existence  to  all  the  extent 
to  which  the  discoveries  of  modern  science  can  carry  us. 
However  vast  the  universe  now  appears — however  numerous 
the  worlds,  and  systems  of  worlds,  which  may  exist  within 
its  boundless  range — the  language  of  Scripture  is  sufficiently 
comprehensive  and  sublime,  to  express  all  the  emotions  which 
naturally  arise  in  the  mind,  when  contemplating  its  structure 
— a  characteristic  which  will  apply  to  no  other  book,  or  pre- 
tended revelation.  And  this  consideration  shows,  not  anjy 
the  harmony  which  subsists  between  the  discoveries  of  reve- 
lation and  the  discoveries  of  science,  but  also  forms,  by  itself, 
a  strong  presumptive  evidence,  that  the  records  of  the  Bible 
are  authentic  and  divine.* 

Vast  as  the  solar  system  we  have  now  been  contemplating 
may  appear,  it  is  but  a  mere  point  in  the  map  of  creation.  To 
a  spectator  placed  in  one  of  the  stars  of  the  seventh  magni- 
tude, not  only  the  glories  of  this  world,  and  the  more  resplen- 
dent scenes  of  the  planet  Saturn,  but  even  the  Sun  himself 
would  entirely  disappear,  as  if  he  were  blotted  out  of  exist- 
ence. "  Were  the  sun,"  says  Mr.  Addison,  ''  which  enlightens 
this  part  of  the  creation,  with  all  the  host  of  planetary  worlds 
that  move  about  him,  utterly  extinguished  and  annihilated, 
they  would  not  be  missed  by  an  eye  that  could  take  in  the 
whole  compass  of  nature,  more  than  a  grain  of  sand  upon  the 
seashore.  The  space  they  possess  is  so  exceedingly  little  in 
comparison  of  the  whole,  that  it  would  scarce  make  a  blank 
in  creation." 

The  FIXED  STARS. — When  we  pass  from  the  planetary  sys- 
tem to  other  regions  of  creation,  we  have  to  traverse,  in  imagi- 

*  See  Appendix,  Note  VI, 


22S  ciniisTiAN  I'HiLosoi'iniR. 

nation,  a  space  so  iinniense,  tliat  it  has  hitherto  baffled  all  the 
efforts  of  science  to  determine  its  extent.  In  these  remote  and 
immeasurable  spaces  are  placed  those  immense  luminous  bodies 
usually  denominated  the  fixed  stars.  The  nearest  stars  are, 
on  good  grounds,  concluded  to  be  at  least  hcenty  billions  of 
miles  distant  from  our  globe — a  distance  through  which  light 
(the  swiftest  body  in  nature)  could  not  travel  in  the  space  of 
three  years  ;  and  which  a  ball,  moving  at  the  rate  of  500  miles 
an  hour,  would  not  traverse  in  four  millions,  five  hundred 
tjiousand  years,  or  750  times  the  period  which  has  elapsed 
since  the  Mosaic  creation.  But  how  far  they  may  be  placed 
beyond  this  distance,  no  astronomer  will  pretend  to  determine. 
The  following  consideration  will  prove,  to  those  unacquainted 
with  the  mathematical  principles  of  astronomy,  that  the  stars 
are  placed  at  an  immeasurable  distance.  When  they  are  viewed 
through  a  telescope  which  magnifies  objects  a  thousand  times, 
they  appear  no  larger  than  to  the  naked  eye;  which  circum- 
stance shows,  that  though  we  were  placed  at  the  thousandth 
part  of  the  distance  from  them  at  which  we  now  are,  they 
would  still  appear  only  as  so  many  shining  points ;  for  we 
should  still  be  distant  from  the  nearest  of  them,  twenty  thou- 
sand millions  of  miles :  or,  in  other  words,  were  we  trans- 
ported several  thousands  of  millions  of  miles  from  the  spot 
we  now  occupy,  though  their  numbers  would  appear  exceed- 
ingly increased,  they  would  appear  no  larger  than  they  do 
from  our  present  station  ;  and  we  behooved  to  be  carried  for- 
ward thousands  of  millions  of  miles  farther  in  a  long  succes- 
sion, before  their  disks  appeared  to  expand  into  large  circles 
like  the  moon.  Sir  W.  Herscliel  viewed  the  stars  with  tele- 
scopes magnifying  from  one  to  two  or  three  thousand  times^  yet 
they  still  appeared  only  as  brilliant  points,  without  any  sensi- 
ble disks  or  increase  of  diameter.  This  circumstance  incon- 
testably  proves  the  two  following  things:  1.  That  the  stars 
are  luminous  bodies^  which  shine  by  their  ovv'n  native  light; 
otherwise  they  could  not  be  perceived  at  such  vast  distances. 
2.  That  they  are  bodies  of  an  immense  size,  not  inferior  to 
the  sun ;  and  many  of  them,  it  is  probable,  far  exceed  that 
luminary  in  bulk  and  splendour.* 

*  Professor  Bossel,  of  Konigsberg.  appears  to  have  lately  ascertained 
the  annual  parallax  of  the  star  61  Cysrni,  which  he  has  determined  to  be 
somewhat  less  than  one-third  of  a  second,  and  consequently  its  distance 
must  be  G2, 481, 500, 000, 000,  or  sixty-two  hillions,  four  hundred  and  eighty- 
one  thousand,  live  hundred  milhons  of  miles — a  distance  which  light, 
swift  as  its  motion  is,  would  require  10  years  and  114  days  to  fly  across 
this  mighty  interval ;  and  a  cannon  ball,  moving  500  miles  every  hour, 
would  reoiiire  tburteen  millions,  two  liuiidrcd  and  fif'v  thousand  vears  be- 


229 


SOUTH. 

For  the  coiiveniency  of  reference  to  particular  objects  and 
regions  in  the  heavens,  the  stars  have  been  arranged  into  dif- 
ferent groups  and  constellations.  The  number  of  constella- 
tions recognized  by  modern  astronomers  is  about  94  ;  of  which 
12  are  contained  in  the  zodiac^  or  that  zone  in  the  heavens  in 
vviiich  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  are  seen  to  perform  their 
real  or  apparent  revolutions;  35  are  reckoned  7iorih  of  the 
zodiac,  and  47  to  the  south^  called  the  northern  and  southern 


fore  it  could  move  across  the  same  interval. — For  a  more  detailed  account 
of  this  discovery  of  Bessel,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  author's  voluiite, 
eniuled  "  The 'Sidereal  Heavons,"   pp.  (!1.  (it,  Philadelphia  edition. 

20 


230  CHRISTIAN   FHlLOsOPHEfC- 

constellations.  These  constellations  are  generally  depicted  on 
celestial  globes  and  planispheres,  as  if  they  were  represented 
by  various  animals  and  hieroglyphic  objects,  which  give  such 
exhibitions  of  the  heavens  a  very  grotesque  and  unnatural 
appearance.  We  have  therefore  given,  in  the  preceding  cut, 
(fig.  23,)  a  representation  of  the  constellation  Orion^  with  the 
adjacent  stars,  on  a  more  simple  and  natural  plan,  to  show  the 
manner  in  which  the  celestial  constellations  might  be  depicted 
on  globes  and  planispheres,  so  as  to  make  them  resemble  as 
much  as  possible  their  appearance  in  the  heavens.  This  con- 
stellation makes  a  splendid  appearance  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  heavens  during  our  winter  montlis.  The  two  large 
stars  near  the  top  towards  the  left,  are  Betelguese  and  Bellatrix; 
the  three  equidistant  stars,  near  the  middle,  are  Orion's  heh., 
called  in  the  book  of  Job,  the  '-  hands  of  Orion."  The  large 
star,  near  the  bottom,  on  the  right,  is  Rigel,  a  star  of  the  Hrst 
magnitude.  A  while  line  is  drawn  around  this  constellation 
to  define  its  boundaries,  and,  in  this  way  the  form  and  limits 
of  all  the  other  constellations  might  be  distinguished. 

The  stars,  on  account  of  the  difference  in  their  apparent 
magnitudes,  have  been  distributed  into  several  classes  or  orders. 
Those  which  appear  largest  are  called  stars  of  the  Jirst  mag- 
nitude ;  next  to  those  in  lustre,  stars  of  the  second  magnitude, 
and  so  on  to  stars  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  which  are  the 
smallest  that  can  be  distinguished  by  the  naked  eye.  Stars  of 
the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  &c.,  magnitudes,  which  can- 
not be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  are  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  telescopic  stars.  Not  more  than  a  thousand  stars  can  be 
distinguished  by  the  naked  eye  in  the  clearest  winter  night ; 
but  by  means  of  the  telescope,  millions  have  been  dis- 
covered.* And  as  it  is  probable,  that  by  far  the  greater  part 
lie  beyond  the  reach  of  the  best  glasses  which  have  been,  or 
ever  will  be,  constructed  by  man — the  real  number  of  the 
stars  may  be  presumed  to  be  beyond  all  human  calculation  or 
conception,  and  perhaps  beyond  the  grasp  of  angelic  com- 
prehension. 

In  consequence  of  recent  discoveries,  we  have  now  the 
strongest  reason  to  believe,  that  all  the  stars  in  the  universe 
are  arranged  into  clusters,  or  groups,  which  astronomers  dis- 
tinguish by  the  name  of  Nebulae,  or  Starry  Systems,  each 
nebula  consisting  of  many  thousands  of  stars.  The  nearest 
nebula  is  that  whitish  space  or  zone  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Milky  Way,  to  which  our  sun  is  supposed  to 

*  See  page  38. 


ASTRONOMY.  231 

belong.  It  consists  of  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  stars. 
When  Sir  W.  Herschel  examined  this  region  with  his  power- 
ful telescopes,  he  found  a  portion  of  it,  only  fifteen  degrees 
long,  and  two  broad,  which  contained  ffly  thousand  stars  large 
enouifh  to  be  distinctly  counted  ;  and  he  suspected  twice  as 
many  more,  which,  for  want  of  sufficient  light  in  his  telescope, 
he  saw  only  now  and  then.  More  than  three  thousand  ne- 
bulae have  already  been  observed ;  and,  if  each  of  them  con- 
tain as  many  stars  as  the  Milky  Way,  several  hundreds  of 
millions  of  stars  must  exist,  even  within  that  portion  of  the 
heavens  which  lies  open  to  our  observation.  Besides  those 
nebulae  which  are  resolvable  into  stars  by  telescopes,  there  are 
nebulous  bodies  in  the  heavens,  of  vast  extent,  such  as  the 
nebula  in  the  sword  of  Orion,  which  the  most  powerful  tele- 
scopes have  hitherto  been  unable  to  resolve  into  stars.  These 
are  found  in  different  degrees  of  condensation — from  the 
resemblance  of  an  irregular  dusky  cloud  to  the  appearance  of 
a  well-defined  body  of  faintish  light,  condensed  to  a  bright 
spot  in  the  centre.  They  appear  to  be  a  species  of  fine 
luminous  matter,  distinct  from  stars  and  planets,  diffused  in 
immense  masses  throughout  the  spaces  of  the  universe.  It  is 
an  opinion  now  generally  entertained  that  these  self-luminous 
portions  of  matter  are  the  chaotic  materials  out  of  which  new 
suns  and  worlds  may  be  formed  under  the  superintendence 
of  Omnipotence — and  that  each  mass  of  this  substance  is 
gradually  concentrating  itself  by  the  effect  of  its  own  gravity, 
and  of  the  circular  motions  of  which  it  is  susceptible — into 
denser  masses,  so  as  ultimately  to  effect  the  arrangement  and 
establishment  of  sidereal  systems. 

It  appears,  from  numerous  observations,  that  various  changes 
are  occasionally  taking  place  in  the  regions  of  the  stars. 
Several  stars  have  appeared  for  a  while  in  the  heavens,  and 
then  vanished  from  the  sight.  Some  stars  which  were  known 
to  the  ancients  cannot  now  be  discovered;  and  stars  are  now 
distinctly  visible,  which  were  to  them  unknown.  A  few  stars 
have  gradually  increased  in  brilliancy,  while  others  have 
been  constantly  diminishing  in  lustre.  Certain  stars,  to  the 
number  of  fifteen  or  upwards,  are  ascertained  to  have  a  pe- 
riodical increase  and  decrease  of  their  lustre,  sometimes  ap- 
pearing like  stars  of  the  first  or  second  magnitude,  sometimes 
diminishing  to  the  size  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  magnitude,  and 
sometimes  altogether  disappearing  to  the  naked  eye.  The 
late  discoveries  respecting  double  and  triple  stars  are  particu- 
larly worthy  of  attention.  Some  stars  which,  to  the  naked 
eye,  appear  single,  when  examined  by  good  telescopes,  are 


232  CHRISTIAN  rniLOSOPHER. 

found  to  consist  of  two,  three,  or  more  stars.  In  reference 
to  double  stars,  one  of  the  two  is  generally  considerably 
smaller  than  the  other,  and  it  is  now  ascertained  that,  in  many 
instances,  the  smaller  star  has  a  circular  or  elliptical  motion 
around  tlie  larger.  About  six  thousand  double  stars  have 
already  been  detected ;  and  .  between  forty  and  fifty  of  these 
bodies  have  been  ascertained  beyond  doubt  to  form  revolving 
systems.  Some  of  these  require  1600,  others  1200,  and  others 
about  452  years  to  complete  their  revolutions  •,  while  some 
others  finish  their  circuits  in  the  short  periods  of  55,  43,  and 
even  30  3-ears.  So  that  here  we  have,  suns  revolving  around  suns, 
and  systems  of  worlds  revolving  around  systems  of  worlds, 
in  various  combinations,  throughout  the  tracts  of  immensity. 
It  also  appears  that  changes  are  taking  place  among  the  ne- 
bulae— that  several  nebulae  are  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  larger  nebulse,  and  that  many  nebulae  of  this  kind  are  at 
present  detaching  themselves  from  the  nebulae  of  the  Milky 
Way.  These  changes  seem  to  indicate,  that  mighty  move- 
ments and  vast  operations  are  continually  going  on  in  the  dis- 
tant regions  of  creation,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Sovereign  of  the  universe,  upon  a  scale  of  magnitude  and 
grandeur  which  overwhelms  the  human  understanding. 

To  explore  more  extensively  the  region  of  the  starry  fir- 
mament ;  to  mark  the  changes  that  are  taking  place ;  to  ascer- 
tain all  the  changeable  stars  ;  to  determine  the  periodical  varia- 
tions of  their  light-  the  revolutions  of  double  and  triple  stars; 
and  the  motions  and  other  phenomena  peculiar  to  these  great 
bodies — will  furnish  employment  for  future  enlightened  gene- 
rations ;  and  will,  perhaps,  form  a  part  of  the  studies  and  inves- 
tigations of  superior  intelligences,  in  a  higher  sphere  of 
existence,  during  an  indefinite  lapse  of.  ages. 

If  every  one  of  these  immense  bodies  be  a  suiv,  equal  or 
superior  to  ours,  and  encircled  with  a  host  of  planetary  worlds, 
as  we  have  every  reason  to  conclude  to  be  the  case,*  how 
vast  must  be  the  extent  of  creatiou !  how  numerous  the  worlds 
and  beings  which  exist  within  its  boundless  range  !  and  hovv 
great,  beyond  all  human  or  angelic  conception,  must  be  the 
power  and  intelligence  of  that  glorious  Being,  who  called  this 
syste.m  from  nothing  into  existence,  and  continually  superin- 
tends all  its  movements!  The  mind  is  bewildered  and  con- 
founded when  it  attempts  to  dwell  on  this  subject;  it  feels 
the  narrow  limits  of  its  present  faculties;  it  longs  for  the 
powers  of  a  seraph,  to  enable  it  to  take  a  more  expansive  flight 

*  See  pp.,  37,  64,  65. 


ASTRONOMY.  233 

into  those  regions  which  ''  eye  hath  not  seen;"  and,  while  des- 
titute of  these,  and  chained  down  to  this  obscure  corner  of 
creation,  it  can  only  exclaim,  in  the  language  of  inspiration, 
"  Who  can  by  searching  find  out  God  ? — Great  is  our  Lord, 
and  of  great  power:  his  understanding  is  infinite! — Great  and 
marvellous  are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty! — Who  can 
litter  the  mighty  acts  of  Jehovah  !  who  can  show  forth  all 
his  praise !" 

After  what  has  now  been  stated,  in  relation  to  the  leading 
facts  of  astronomy,  it  would  be  needless  to  spend  time  in  en- 
deavouring to  show  its  connexion  with  religion.  It  will  be 
at  once  admitted,  that  all  the  huge  globes  of  luminous  and 
opake  matter  to  which  we  have  adverted,  are  the  workman- 
ship of  him  "  who  is  wonderful  in  counsel,  and  excellent  in 
working ;"  and  form  a  part  of  tlie  dominions  of  that  august 
Sovereign,  "  whose  kingdom  ruleth  over  all."  And  shall  it 
ever  be  insinuated,  that  this  subject  has  no  relation  to  the 
great  object  of  our  adoration  ?  and  that  it  is  of  no  importance 
in  our  views  of  the  Divinity,  whether  we  conceive  his  do- 
minions as  circumscribed  within  the  limits  of  little  more  than 
twenty-five  thousand  miles,  or  as  embracing  an  extent  which 
comprehends  innumerable  worlds  .''  The  objects  around  us, 
in  this  sublunary  sphere,  strikingly  evince  the  superintendency, 
the  wisdom,  and  benevolence  of  the  Creator :  but  this  science 
demonstrates  beyond  all  other  departments  of  human  know- 
ledge, the  GRANDEUR  and  magnificence  of  his  operations; 
and  raises  the  mind  to  sublimer  views  of  his  attributes  than 
can  be  acquired  by  the  contemplation  of  any  other  objects. 
A  serious  contemplation  of  the  sublime  objects  which  astro- 
nomy has  explored,  must  therefore  have  a  tendency  to  inspire 
us  with  profound  veneration  of  the  eternal  Jehovah — to 
humble  us  in  the  dust  before  his  august  presence — to  excite 
admiration  of  his  condescension  and  grace  in  the  work  of 
redemption — to  show  us  the  littleness  of  this  world,  and  the 
insignificancy  of  those  riches  and  honours  to  which  ambitious 
men  aspire  with  so  much  labour  and  anxiety  of  mind — to  de- 
monstrate the  glory  and  magnificence  of  God's  universal 
kingdom — to  convince  us  of  the  infinite  sources  of  varied 
felicity  which  he  has  in  his  power  to  communicate  to  holy 
intelligences — to  enliven  our  hopes  of  the  splendours  of  that 
"exceeding  great  and  eternal  weight  of  glory,"  which  will 
burst  upon  the  spirits  of  good  men,  when  they  pass  from  this 
region  of  mortality — and  to  induce  us  to  aspire  with  more  lively 
ardour  after  that  heavenly  world,  where   the  glories  of  the 

20* 


234  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOrHEK. 

Deity,  and  the  magnificence  of  his  works,  will  be  more  clearly 
unfolded. 

If,  then,  such  be  the  effects  which  the  objects  of  astronomy 
have  a  tendency  to  produce  on  a  devout  and  enlightened  mind 
— to  call  in  question  the  propriety  of  exhibiting  such  views 
in  religious  publications,  or  in  the  course  of  religious  instruc- 
tions, would  be  an  approach  to  impiety,  and  an  attempt  to 
cover  with  a  veil  the  most  illustrious  visible  displays  of  Di- 
vine glory.  It  forms  a  striking  evidence  of  the  depravity  of 
man,  as  well  as  of  his  want  of  true  taste,  and  of  a  discern- 
ment of  what  is  excellent,  that  the  grandeur  of  the  nocturnal 
heavens,  and  the  perfections  of  Deity  they  proclaim,  are  be- 
held with  so  much  apathy  and  indifference  by  the  bulk  of 
mankind.  Though  "  the  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God," 
in  the  most  solemn  and  impressive  language,  adapted  to  the 
comprehension  of  every  kindred  and  every  tribe,  yet  "  a 
brutish  man  knoweth  not,  neither  doth  a  fool  understand  this." 
They  can  gaze  upon  these  resplendent  orbs  with  as  little  emo- 
tion as  the  ox  that  feeds  on  the  grass,  or  as  the  horse  that 
drags  their  carcasses  along  in  their  chariots.  They  have  even 
attempted  to  ridicule  the  science  of  the  heavens,  to  caricature 
those  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  such  studies,  and  to 
treat  with  an  indifference,  mingled  with  contempt,  the  most 
august  productions  of  Omnipotence.  Such  persons  must  be 
considered  as  exposing  themselves  to  that  Divine  denuncia- 
tion— "  Because  they  regard  not  the  works  of  Jehovah,  neither 
consider  the  operations  of  his  hands,  he  will  destroy  them, 
and  not  build  them  up."  If  the  structure  of  the  heavens,  and 
the  immensity  of  worlds  and  beings  which  they  contain,  were 
intended  by  the  Creator  to  adumbrate,  in  some  measure,  his 
invisible  perfections,  and  to  produce  a  sublime  and  awful  im- 
pression on  the  minds  of  all  created  intelligences,*  it  must 
imply  a  high  degree  of  disrespect  to  the  Divinity,  wilfully  to 
overlook  these  astonishing  scenes  of  power  and  intelligence. 
It  is  not  a  matter  of  mere  taste  or  caprice,  whether  or  not  we 
direct  our  thoughts  to  such  subjects,  but  an  imperative  duty, 
to  which  we  are  frequently  directed  in  the  w^ord  of  God  ;  the 
wUful  neglect  of  which,  where  there  is  an  opportunity  of 
attending  to  it,  must  subject  us  to  all  that  is  included  in  the 
threatening  now  specified,  if  there  be  any  meaning  in  language. 

That  the  great  body  of  professed  Christians  are  absolute 
strangers  to  the  sublime  sentiments  which  a  serious  contem- 

See  pp.,  45,  46,  50,  57. 


ASTRONOMY. 


235 


plation  of  the  heavens  inspires,  must  be  owing,  in  part,  to  the 
minds  of  Christian  parents  and  teachers  not  having  been  di- 
rected to  such  subjects,  or  to  the  views  they  entertain  respect- 
ing the  relation  of  such   contemplations   to    the    objects   of 
religion.    In  communicating  religious  instructions,  in  reference 
to  the  attributes  of  God,  the  heavens  are  seldom  referred  to, 
except  in  such  a  vague  and  indefinite  manner  as  can  produce 
no  deep  nor  vivid  impression   on  the  mind ;  and  many  pious 
persons,  whose  views  have  been  confined  to  a  narrow  range 
of  objects,  have  been  disposed  to  declaim  against  such  studies, 
as  if  they  had  a  tendency  to  engender  pride  and  self-conceit, 
and  as  if  they  were  even  dangerous  to  the  interests  of  religion 
and  piety.     How  very  diflierent  were  the  feelings  and  the  con- 
duct of  the  sacred  writers  !  They  call  upon  every  one  of  God's 
intelligent  offspring  to  "stand  still, and  consider  the  wondrous 
works  of  the  Most  High ;"  and  describe  the  profound  emo- 
tions of  piety  which  the  contemplation  of  them  produced  on 
their  own  minds;  "Lift  up  your  eyes  on  high,  and  behold! 
Who  hath  created  these  things  ?  The  heavens  declare  the  glory 
of  God,  and  the  firmament  showeth  his  handiwork.     When  I 
consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers,  the  moon  and 
the  stars,  which  thou  hast  ordained  ;  what  is  man,  that  thou 
art  mindful  of  him?  and  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  visitest 
him  }    Thou,    even  thou,  art   Lord  alone :  thou    hast  made 
heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heavens,  with  all  their  host,  and 
thou  preservest  them  all ;   and  the  hosts  of  heaven  worship 
thee.     All  the  gods  of  the  nations  are  idols ;  but  the  Lord 
MADE   THE  HEAVENS ;   houour  and  majesty  are  before  him. 
Jehovah  hath  prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens ;  and  his 
kingdom  ruleth  over  all.     Sing  praises  unto  God,  ye  king- 
doms of  the  earth,  to  him  that  rideth  on  the  heaven  of  heavens. 
Ascribe  ye   power  to  our  God;  for  his  strength   is  in  the 
heavens..    Praise  him  for  his  mighty  acts,  praise  him  accord- 
ing to  his  excellent  greatnessP     if  we  would  enter  with  spirit 
into  such  elevated  strains  of  piety,  we  must  not  content  our- 
selves with  a  passing  and  vacant  stare  at  the  orbs  of  heaven, 
as  if  they  were  only  so  many  brilliant  studs  fixed  in  the  canopy 
of  the  sky ;  but  must  "  consider''^  them  with  fixed  attention, 
in  all  the'lights  in  which  revelation  and  science  have  exhibited 
them  to  our  view,  if  we   wish  to  praise  God  for  his  mighty 
works,  and  "  according  to  his  excellent  greatnessP     And,  for 
this  purpose,  the  conclusions  deduced  by  those  who  have  de- 
voted themselves  to  celestial   investigations,  ought  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  view  of  the  intelligent  Christian,  that  he  may  be 


236  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

enabled  to  "  speak  of  the  glory  of  Jehovah's  kingdom,  and  to 
talk  of  his  power." 

NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

Having  in  the  preceding  sketches  considerably  exceeded 
the  limits  originally  prescribed  for  this  department  of  my  sub- 
ject, I  am  reluctantly  compelled  to  despatch  the  remaining 
sciences  with  a  few  brief  notices. 

The  object  of  JVatural  Philosophy  is,  to  observe,  and  de- 
scribe the  phenomena  of  the  material  universe,  with  a  view 
to  discover  their  causes,  and  the  laws  by  which  the  Almighty 
directs  the  movements  of  all  bodies  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
It  embraces  an  investigation  of  the  laws  of  gravitation,  by 
which  the  planets  are  directed  in  their  motions — the  laws  by 
which  water,  air,  light,  and  heat,  are  regulated,  and  the  effects 
they  produce  in  the  various  states  in  which  they  operate — the 
nature  of  colours,  sounds,  electricity,  galvanism,  and  magnet- 
ism, and  the  laws  of  their  operation — the  causes  which  operate 
in  the  production  of  thunder,  lightning,  luminous  and  fiery 
meteors,  hail,  rain,  snow,  dew,  and  other  atmospherical  phe- 
nomena. In  short,  it  embraces  all  the  objects  of  natural  his- 
tory formerly  alluded  to,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  causes 
of  their  varied  appearances,  and  the  principles  that  operate  in 
the  changes  to  which  they  are  subject;  or,  in  other  words, 
the  laws  by  which  the  diversified  phenomena  of  universal  na- 
ture are  produced  and  regulated.  One  subordinate  use  of  the 
knowledge  derived  from  this  science  is,  to  enable  ns  to  con- 
struct all  those  mechanical  engines  which  facilitate  human  la- 
bour, and  increase  the  comforts  of  mankind,  and  all  those 
instruments  which  tend  to  enlarge  our  views  of  the  operations 
of  nature.  A  still  higher  and  nobler  use  to  which  philosophy 
is  subservient,  is  to  demonstrate  the  wisdom  and  intelligence 
of  the  Great  First  Cause  of  all  things,  and  to  enlarge  our  con- 
ceptions of  the  admirable  contrivance  and  design  which  appear 
in  the  difTerent  departments  of  universal  nature.  In  this  view, 
it  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  branch  of  natural  theology^ 
or,  in  otiier  words,  a  branch  of  the  religion  of  angels,  and  of 
all  other  holy  intelligences. 

This  department  of  natural  science  has  generally  been  di- 
vided into  the  following  branches  : — 

I.  Mechanics. — This  branch,  considered  in  its  most  exten- 
sive range,  includes  an  investigation  of  the  general  properties 
of  matter;  such  as  solidity,  extension,  divisibility,  motion, 
attraction,  and  repulsion — the  laws  of  gravitation,  and  of  cen- 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHV.  237 

tral  forces,  as  they  appear  to  operate  in  the  motions  of  the  ce- 
lestial bodies  ;  and  on  the  surface  of  our  globe,  in  the  pheno- 
mena of  falling  bodies,  the  motions  of  projectiles,  the  vibration 
of  pendulums,  &c. — the  theory  of  machines,  the  principles  on 
which  their  energy  depends  ;  the  properties  of  the  mechani- 
cal powers — the  lever,  the  wheel,  and  axle,  the  pulley,  the 
inclined  plane,  the  wedge,  and  the  screw — and  the  effects  re- 
sulting from  their  various  combinations.  From  the  investiga- 
tions of  philosophers  on  these  subjects,  we  learn  the  laws  by 
which  the  great  bodies  of  the  universe  are  directed  in  their 
motions ;  the  laws  which  bind  together  the  different  portions 
of  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  which  regulate  the 
motions  of  animal,  vegetable,  and  inanimate  nature;  and  the 
principles  on  which  cranes,  mills,  wheel-carriages,  pile-en- 
gines, thrashing  machines,  locomotive  carriages,  and  other  en- 
gines, are  constructed ;  by  means  of  which,  man  has  been 
enabled  to  accomplish  operations  far  beyond  the  limits  of  his 
own  physical  powers. 

Without  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  motion,  and  assistance 
from  the  combined  effects  of  the  mechanical  powers,  man 
would  be  a  very  limited  being,  his  enjoyments  w^ouid  be  few, 
and  his  active  energies  confined  within  a  very  narrow  range. 
Jn  a  savage  state,  ignorant  of  manufactures,  agriculture,  archi- 
tecture, navigation,  and  the  other  arts  which  depend  upon  me- 
chanical combinations,  he  is  exposed,  without  shelter,  to  the 
inclemencies  of  the  seasons ;  he  is  unable  to  transport  him- 
self beyond  seas  and  oceans,  to  visit  other  climes,  an.d  other 
tribes  of  his  fellow-men ;  he  exists  in  the  desert,  comfortless 
and  unimproved ;  the  fertile  soil,  over  which  he  roams,  is 
covered  with  thorns  and  briers  and  thickets,  for  the  haunt  of 
beasts  of  prey;  his  enjoyments  are  little  superior  to  those  of 
the  lion,  the  hyena,  and  the  elephant,  while  he  is  much  their 
inferior  in  point  of  agility  and  physical  strength.  But,  when 
philosophy  has  once  demonstrated  the  principles  of  mechanics, 
and  introduced  the  practice  of  the  useful  arts,  "  the  wilderness 
and  the  solitary  place  are  made  glad,  and  the  desert  rejoices 
and  blossoms  as  the  rose."  Cities  are  founded,  and  graduallv 
rise  to  opulence  and  splendour ;  palaces  and  temples  are 
reared  ;  the  damp  cavern  and  the  rush-built  hut  are  exchanged 
for  the  warm  and  comfortable  apartments  of  a  substantial  man- 
sion ;  ships  are  built,  and  navigated  across  the  ocean  ;  the 
treasures  of  one  country  are  conveyed  to  another;  an  inter- 
course is  carried  on  between  the  most  distant  tribes  of  man- 
kind ;  commerce  flourishes,  and  machinery  of  all  kinds  is 
erected  for  facilitating  human  labour,  and  promoting  the  en- 


238 


CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 


joyments  of  man.  Am\^  when  the  principles  anil  the  practice 
of  '•''  pure  and  undefiled  religion"  accompany  these  physical 
and  mechanical  operations,  love  and  affection  diffuse  their  he- 
nign  influence  ;  the  prospect  brightens  as  years  roll  on,  and 
man  advances,  with  pleasure  and  improvement,  to  the  scene 
of  his  high  destination. 

II.  Hydrostatics  treats  of  the  pressure  and  equilibrium 
of  fluids.  From  the  experiments  which  have  been  made  in 
this  branch  of  philosophy,  the  following  important  principles, 
among  many  others,  have  been  deduced  : — 


Fig.  24. 


Fig.  25. 


B 


i         i 


(1.)  That  the  surface  of  all  waters  lohich  have  a  communi- 
cation whilst  they  are  at  rest.,  will  he  perfectly  level. — This 
principle  will  be  more  clearly  understood  by  an  inspection  of 
the  preceding  figures.  If  water  be  poured  into  the  tube  A, 
(Fig.  24,)  it  will  run  through  the  horizontal  tube  E,  and  rise 
in  the  opposite  tube  B,  to  the  same  height  at  which  it  stands 
at  A.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  water  is  now  conveyed  under 
ground,  through  conduit  pipes,  and  made  to  rise  to  the  level 
of  the  fountain  whence  it  is  drawn.  The  city  of  Edinburgh,  a 
considerable  part  of  which  is  elevated  above  the  level  of  the 
surrounding  coiuUry,  is  supplied  with  water  from  a  reservoir 
on  the  Pentland  hills,  several  miles  distant.  The  water  is 
conveyed  in  leaden  pipes  down  the  declivity  of  the  hill,  along 
the  interjacent  plain,  and  up  to  the  entrance  of  the  castle, 
whence  it  is  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  city.  If  the  point 
A  represent  the  level  of  the  reservoir,  C  D  will  represent  the 


NATURAL   I'HLOSOPHY.  239 

plain  along  which  the  water  is  conveyed,  and  B  the  elevation 
to  which  it  rises  on  the  castle-hill.  On  the  same  principle, 
and  in  a  similar  manner,  the  city  of  London  is  supplied  with 
water  from  tlie  water-works  at  the  London  bridge.  Had  the 
ancients  been  acquainted  with  this  simple,  but  important  prin- 
ciple, it  would  have  saved  them  the  labour  and  expense  of 
rearing  those  stupendous  works  of  art,  the  aqueducts^  which 
consisted  of  numerous  arches  of  a  vast  size,  and  sometimes 
piled  one  above  another. 

Fig  25  represents  the  siphon^  the  action  of  which  depends 
upon  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  If  this  instrument  be 
filled  with  water,  or  any  other  liquid,  and  the  shorter  leg  G 
plunged  to  the  bottom  of  a  cask,  or  other  vessel  containing 
the  same  liquid,  the  water  will  run  out  at  the  longer  leg  F,  till 
the  vessel  be  emptied,  in  consequence  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  upon  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  On  this  principle 
water  may  be  conveved  over  a  rising  ground  to  any  distance, 
provided  the  perpendicular  height  of  the  siphon,  above  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  fountain,  does  not  exceed  thirty- 
two  or  thirty-three  feet.  On  the  same  principle  are  constructed 
the  fountain  at  command^  the  cup  of  Tantalus^  and  other 
entertaining  devices.  The  same  principle,  too,  enables  us  to 
account  for  springs  which  are  sometimes  found  on  the  tops 
of  mountains,  and  for  the  phenomena  of  intermitting  springs, 
or  those  which  flow  and  stop  by  regular  alternations. 

Fig.  26.     » 


The  above  figure  will  explain  th%'  nature  of  intermitting 
springs.  Suppose  A  B  a  cavity  or  receptacle  of  water  formed 
in  the  bowels  of  a  hill  where  the  spring  is  situated,  which  gra- 
dually fills  with  water  like  other  reservoirs,  and  that  by  the 
interposition  of  some  stratum,  of  rock  or  other  substance,  the 


240  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

tube  C  D  which  conveys  the  water  to  the  spring  or  mouth 
where  it  issues — is  bent  in  the  form  of  a  siphon  :  Whenever 
the  reservoir  A  B  is  filled  as  high  as  the  bend  of  the  tube,  or 
to  the  level  of  It  /,  the  water  will  rise  in  the  tube,  and  begin 
to  flow  into  the  spring,  which  will  continue  till  the  reservoir 
be  exhausted.  While  this  process  is  going  on  the  water  in  the 
spring  will  rise,  and  as  soon  as  the  reservoir  is  exhausted, 
the  water  will  appear  to  fall  in  the  well  of  the  spring,  and 
will  continue  to  fall  till  the  reservoir  is  again  supplied  to  the 
height  of  the  siphon,  when  the  process  of  tilling  will  be  again 
renewed.  It  is  obvious  that  unless  the  water  in  the  reservoir 
rises  above  the  height  of  the  bend  of  the  siphon  E,  the  well 
cannot  be  filled. 

(2.)  Any  quantity  of  Jluid^  however  small.,  may  he  made  to 
counterpoise  any  quantity.^  however  large.  This  is  what  has 
generally  been  termed  the  hydrostatical  paradox  ;  and  from 
this  principle  it  follows,  that  a  given  quantity.of  water  may 
exert  a  force  several  hundred  times  greater  or  less,  according 
to  the  manner  in  which  it  is  employed.  This  force  depends 
on  the  height  of  the  column  of  water,  independent  of  its 
quantity;  for  lis  pressure  depends  on  its  perpendicular  height. 
By  means  of  water  conveyed  througli  a  very  small  perpendicu- 
lar tube,  of  great  length,  a  very  strong  hogshead  has  been 
burst  to  pieces,  and  the  water  scattered  about  with  incredible 
force.  On  this  principle,  the  hydrostatic  press.,  and  other 
engines  of  immense  power,  have  been  constructed. 

(3.)  Every  body  ichicKis  heavier  than  water.,  or  which  sinls 
in  it.,  displaces  so  much  of  the  water  as  is  equal  to  the  bulk  of 
the  body  immersed  in  the  water.  On  this  principle,  the  spe- 
cific gravities,  or  comparative  weight,  of  all  bodies  are  deter- 
mineii.  It  appears  to  have  been  fii-st  ascertained  by  Archimedes, 
and,  by  means  of  it,  he  determined  that  the  golden  crown  of 
the  king  of  Syracuse  had  been  adulterated  by  the  workmen. 
From  this  principle  we  learn,  among  many  other  tilings,  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  human  body;  and  that  four  pounds  of 
cork  wiil  preserve  a  person  weighing  one  hundred  aiul  thirty- 
live  pounds  from  sinking,  so  that  he  may  remain  with  his  head 
completely  above  water. 

Hydraulics^  which  has  sometimes  been  treated  as  a  distinct 
department  of  mechanical  philosophy,  may  be  considered  as 
a  branch  of  Hydrostatic^  It  teaches  us  what  relates  to  the 
motion  of  fuids  and  how  to  estimate  their  velocity  and  force. 
On  the  principles  of  this  science,  all  machines  worked  by 
Avater  are  constructed — as  stearn-engines,  watei'-mills,  conunon 
and  forcing  pumps,  siphons,  fountains,  and  fire-engines. 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  241 

III.  Pneumatics. — This  branch  of  philosophy  treats  of 
the  nature  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere,  and  of  their 
effects  on  solid  and  fluid  bodies.  From  this  science  we  learu 
that  air  has  weighty  and  presses  on  all  sides  like  other  fluids  ; 
that  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  top  of  a  mountain 
is  less  than  on  the  plain  beneath ;  that  it  presses  upon  our 
bodies  with  the  weight  of  several  thousand  pounds  more  at 
one  time  than  at  another;  that  air  can  be  compressed  into 
forty  thousand  times  less  space  than  it  naturally  occupies ; 
that  it  is  of  an  elastic  or  expansive  nature,  and  that  the  force 
of  its  spring  is  equal  to  its  weight ;  that  its  elasticity  is  in- 
creased by  heat ;  that  it  is  necessary  to  the  production  of 
sound,  the  support  of  flame  and  animal  life,  and  the  germina- 
tion and  growth  of  all  kinds  of  vegetables. 

These  positions  are  proved  and  illustrated  by  such  experi- 
ments as  the  following : — The  general  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  proved  by  such  experiments  as  those  detailed  in 
Note  II.  of  the  Appendix.  The  following  experiment  proves 
that  air  is  compressible.  If  a  glass  tube,  open  at  one  end,  and 
close  at  the  other,  be  plunged,  with  the  open  end  downwards, 
into  a  tumbler  of  water,  the  water  will  rise  a  little  way  in  the 
tube;  which  shows,  that  the  air  which  filled  the  tube  is  com- 
pressed by  the  water  into  a  smaller  space.  The  elasticity  of 
air  is  proved  by  tying  up  a  bladder,  with  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  air  within  it,  and  putting  it  under  the  receiver  of  an  air 
pump,  when  it  will  be  seen  gradually  to  inflate,  till  it  becomes 
of  its  full  size.  A  similar  effect  would  take  place,  by  carrying 
the  bladder  to  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  On  the 
compression  and  elasticity  of  the  air  depends  the  construction 
of  that  dangerous  and  destructive  instrument,  the  air-gun. 
That  it  is  capable  of  being  rarefied  by  heat,  is  proved  by  hold- 
ing to  the  fire  a  half-blown  bladder,  slightly  tied  at  the  neck, 
when  it  will  dilate  to  nearly  its  full  size;  and  if  either  di  full- 
blown bladder,  or  a  thin  glass  bubble  filled  with  air,  is  held  to 
a  strong  fire,  it  will  burst.  The  elasticity  of  the  air  is  such, 
that  Mr.  Boyle,  by  means  of  an  air-pump,  caused  it  to  dilate 
till  it  occupied  fourteen  thousand  times  the  space  that  it  usually 
does.  That  air  is  necessary  to  sound,  flame,  animal  and  vege- 
table life,  is  proved  by  the  following  experiments  : — When 
the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  is  exhausted  of  its  air,  a  cat,  a 
mouse,  or  a  bird,  placed  in  it,  expires  in  a  few  moments,  in 
the  greatest  agonies.  A  bell  rung  in  the  same  situation  pro- 
duces no  sound  ;  and  a  lighted  candle  is  instantly  extinguished. 
Similar  experiments  prove  that  air  is  necessary  for  the  flight 
of  birds,  the  ascent  of  smoke  and  vapours,  the  explosion  of 

21 


242  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

gnnpowder,  and  the  growth  of  plants ;  and  that  all  bodies 
descend  equally  ew'ih  in  a  place  void  of  air ;  a  guinea  and  a 
feather  being  found  to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  an  exhausted  re- 
ceiver at  the  same  instant. 

On  the  principles  which  this  science  has  established  have 
been  constructed  the  air-pump,  the  barometer,  the  thermome- 
ter, the  diving-bell,  the  hygrometer,  the  condenser,  and  vari- 
ous other  instruments,  which  have  contributed  to  the  comfort 
of  human  life,  and  to  the  enlargement  of  our  knowledge  of 
the  constitution  of  nature. 

IV.  Acoustics. — This  science  treats  of  the  nature,  the 
phenomena,  and  the  laws  of  sound^  and  the  theory  of  musical 
concord  and  harmony.  From  the  experiments  which  have 
been  made  on  this  subject,  we  learn,  that  air  is  essential  to  the 
production  of  sound ;  that  it  arises  from  vibrations  in  the  air, 
communicated  to  it  by  vibrations  of  the  sounding  body ;  that 
these  vibrations,  or  aerial  pulses,  are  propagated  all  around  in 
a  spherical  undulatory  manner ;  that  their  density  decreases, 
as  the  squares  of  the  distances  from  the  sounding  body  in- 
crease;  that  they  are  propagated  together  in  great  numbers 
from  different  bodies,  without  disturbance  or  confusion,  as  is 
evident  from  concerts  of  musical  instruments ;  that  water, 
timber,  and  flannel,  are  also  good  conductors  of  sound  ;  that 
sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  1142  feet  in  a  second,  or  about 
thirteen  miles  in  a  minute  ;*  that  the  softest  whisper  flies  as 
fast  as  the  loudest  thunder ;  and  that  the  utmost  limits,  within 
which  the  loudest  sounds,  produced  by  artificial  means,  can 
be  heard,  is  one  hundred  and  eighty  or  two  hundred  miles  ;| 
that  sound,  striking  against  an  obstacle,  as  the  wall  of  a  house, 
may,  like  light,  be  reflected,  and  produce  another  sound, 
which  is  called  an  echo;  and  that,  after  it  has  been  reflected 
from  several  places,  it  may  be  collected  into  one  point  or  focus, 
where  it  will  be  more  audible  than  in  any  other  place. 

*  The  velocity  of  sound  has  been  somewhat  differently  estimated  by 
different  experimenters.  Mr.  Boyle  estmiated  its  velocity  atl200  feet ; 
the  t'lorentine  Academicians  at  1148  feet;  the  French  Academicians  at 
1112  ket  per  second.  It  is  reckoned  by  some  modern  philosophers  that 
1120  feet  per  second  may  be  reckoned  as  a  medium  estimate.  The  ex- 
periments of  Flamstead,  Halley,  and  Derham,  which  were  considered  as 
having  been  accurately  performed,  give  1142  feet  per  second,  as  the  ave- 
rage velocity  of  sound — which  is  sometimes  modified  by  the  direction  ol 
the  wind  and  local  circumstances. 

t  In  the  war  between  England  and  Holland,  in  1672,  the  noise  of  the 
guns  was  heard  in  those  parts  of  Wales  which  were  estimated  to  be  two 
hundred  miles  distant  from  the  scene  of  action.  But  the  sounds  produced 
by -volcanoes  have  been  heard  at  a  much  greater  distance  ;  some  instances 
of  which  are  stated  in  Chap.  IV.  sect.  2.  Several  other  facts,  in  relation 
to  sound,  are  detailed  in  Chap.  Til.  Art.  Acm/sfir  Tunnels. 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY.  243 

The  intensity  of  sound  increases  or  diminishes  when  the 
elasticity  of  the  air  increases  or  diminishes,  either  by  heat  or 
by  compression.  Hence,  in  proportion  as  the  air  is  rarefied 
under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump,  or  in  the  ascent  of  lofty 
mountains,  sound  loses  its  force.  Air  communicates  its  vibra- 
tions to  the  sonorous  bodies  with  which  it  is  in  contact. 
Hence  a  string  of  an  instrument  causes  another  stretched  be- 
side it  to  vibrate.  A  noise  without  makes  the  windows  of  an 
apartment  to  resound,  and  the  discharge  of  cannons,  and  peals 
of  thunder,  cause  buildings  and  even  whole  villages  to  shake. 
Euler  tells  us  of  a  man  who,  by  different  inflections  of  his 
voice,  made  a  glass  vibrate  so  as  almost  to  break  it.  When 
the  velocity  of  sound  is  known,  the  distance  of  certain  objects 
may  be  determined.  If  the  flash  of  a  gun  be  observed,  and 
the  number  of  seconds  or  pulsations  which  elapse  between 
seeing  the  flash  and  hearing  the  report,  be  counted,  this  num- 
ber multiplied  by  1142,  the  assumed  velocity  of  sound  per 
second,  will  give  the  distance  of  the  observer  from  the  centre 
of  vibration.  If,  in  a  thunder  storm,  I  can  count  five  pulsa- 
tions, from  the  instant  of  seeing  the  lightning  till  the  report  of 
the  thunder  be  heard,  the  distance  of  the  thunder  cloud  will 
be  1142  X  5=5710  feet,  that  is,  an  English  mile,  and  430 
feet.  Were  the  thunder  to  be  heard  within  a  second  of  the 
time  of  seeing  the  flash,  it  would  indicate  that  the  thunder 
was  within  three  hundred  and  eighty  yards  of  the  observer, 
and  consequently,  that  he  is  within  the  sphere  of  danger.  In 
estimating  such  distances,  4|  seconds,  at  an  average,  may  be 
reckoned  for  every  mile. 

On  the  principles  above  stated  we  may  account  for  the 
various  phenomena  of  sounds,  and  the  diversified  echoes  which 
are  heard  in  various  places,  which  both  amuse  and  sometimes 
puzzle  the  observers — and  on  the  same  principles  whispering 
galleries,  such  as  that  in  St.  Paul's  church,  London,  speaking 
and  hearing  trumpets — whid  and  stringed  instruments — the 
Harmonica  Cclestina^  and  other  acoustic  instruments,  are 
constructed. 

V.  Optics. — This  branch  of  philosophy  treats  of  vision, 
light,  and  colours,  and  of  the  various  phenomena  of  visible 
objects  produced  by  the  rays  of  light,  reflected  from  mirrors, 
or  transmitted  through  lenses.  From  this  science  we  learn, 
that  light  flies  at  the  rate  of  nearly  twelve  millions  of  miles 
every  minute — that  it  moves  in  straight  lines — that  its  particles 
may  be  several  thousands  of  miles  distant  from  each  other — 
that  every  visible  body  emits  particles  of  light  from  its  sur- 
face, in  all  directions — that  the  particles  of  light  are  exceed^ 


244  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

ingly  small;  for  a  lighted  candle  will  fill  a  cubical  space  of 
two  miles  every  way  with  its  rays,  before  it  has  lost  the  least 
sensible  part  of  its  substance ;  and  millions  of  rays,  from  a 
tliousand  objects,  will  pass  through  a  hole  not  larger  than  the 
point  of  a  needle,  and  convey  to  the  mind  an  idea  of  the  form, 
position,  and  colour,  of  every  individual  object — that  the  in- 
tensity, or  degree  of  light  decreases,  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  luminous  body  increases;  that  is,  at  two  yards' 
distance  from  a  candle,  we  shall  have  only  the  fourth  part  of 
the  light  we  should  have  at  the  distance  of  one  yard  ;  at  three 
yards'  distance,  the  ninth  part;  at  four  yards,  the  sixteenth 
part,  and  so  on — that  glass  lenses  may  be  ground  into  the 
following  forms  :  plano-convex^  plano-concave^  double  convex^ 
double  concave^  and  meniscus^  that  is,  convex  on  one  side,  and 
concave  on  the  other — that  specula,  or  mirrors,  may  be  ground 
into  either  a  spherical,  parabolical,  or  cylindrical  form — that, 
by  means  of  such  mirrors  and  lenses,  the  rays  of  light  may 
be  so  modified  as  to  proceed  either  in  a  diverging^  converg- 
ing^ or  parallel  direction,  and  the  images  of  visible  objects 
represented  in  a  variety  of  new  forms^  positions^  and  magni- 
tudes^— tliat  every  ray  of  Avhite  light  may  be  separated  into 
seven  primary  colours  :  red^  orange^  yellow^  greeri,  blue^  in- 
digo^ and  violet — that  the  variegated  colouring  which  appears 
on  the  face  of  nature  is  not  in  the  objects  themselves,  but  in 
the  light  which  falls  upon  them — that  the  ralnboiv  is  produced 
by  the  refraction  and  reflection  of  the  solar  rays  in  the  drops 
of  falling  rain — that  the  rays  of  light  are  refracted,  or  bent 
out  of  their  course,  when  Ihey  fall  upon  glass,  Avater,  and 
other  mediums — that  the  light  of  the  sun  may  be  collected 
into  a  point  or  focus,  and  made  to  produce  a  heat  more  in- 
tense than   that  of  a  furnace* — that  the    rays    from  visible 

*  This  is  produced  by  means  of  lenses,  or  mirrors,  of  a  large  diameter, 
called  burning-glasses.  By  these  instruments,  the  hardest  metals,  on 
■which  common  lires,  and  even  glass-house  furnaces,  could  produce  no 
effect,  liave  been  melted  in  a  few  seconds.  M.  Villette,  a  Frenchman, 
nearly  a  century  ago,  constructed  a  mirror,  three  feet  eleven  inches  in 
diameter,  and  three  feet  two  inches  in  focal  distance,  which  melted  copper 
ore  in  eight  seconds,  iron  ore  in  twenty-four  seconds,  a  fish's  tooth  in 
ihirty-two  seconds,  cast  iron'm  sixteen  seconds,  a  silver  sixpence  in  seven 
seconds,  and  tin  in  three  seconds.  This  mirror  condensed  the  solar  rays 
\l,2bl  times,  a  degree  of  heat  which  is  about  four  hundred  and  vinety 
times  greaier  than  common  fire.  Mr.  Parker,  of  London,  constructed  a 
lens  thee  feet  in  diameter,  and  six  feet  eight  inches  focus,  which  weighed 
two  hundred  and  twelve  pounds.  It  melted  twenty  grains  of  gold  in  four 
seconds,  and  ten  grains  of  platina  in  three  seconds.  'I'he  power  of  burn- 
ing-glasses is,  as  tfie  area  of  the  lens  directly,  and  the  square  of  the  fucal 
distance  inversely — or,  in  other  words,  the  broader  the  mirror  or  lens,  and 
the  shoiter  the  focal  distance,  the  more  intense  is  the  heat  produced  by 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  24**) 

objects,  wlien  reflected  from  a  concave  mirror,  converge  to  a 
focus,  and  paint  an  image  of  the  objects  before  it,  and  that 
wlien  tliey  pass  through  a  convex  glass,  they  depict  an  image 
beliind  it. 

On  these  and  other  principles  demonstrated  by  this  science, 


ria 


the  camera  obscura,  the  magic  lantern,  the  phantasmago 
the  Ivaleidoscope,  the  heliostata,  the  micrometer — spectacles, 
opera  glasses,  prisms,  single,  compound,  lucernal,  and  solar 
microscopes,  reflecting  and  refracting  telescopes,  and  other 
optical  instruments,  have  been  constructed,  by  means  of  which 
the  natural  powers  of  human  vision  have  been  wonderfully 
increased,  and  our  prospects  into  the  works  of  God  extended 
far  beyond  what  former  ages  could  have  conceived. 

Connected  with  the  science  of  optics,  it  may  be  proper  to 
notice  a  late  discovery  for  fixing  the  images  formed  by  convex 
lenses,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  Daguerreotype. 
Almost  every  one  knows  the  effects  produced  by  the  camera 
obscura.  A  convex  glass  placed  in  an  opening  in  a  window 
shutter  in  a  dark  room,  or  in  a  box  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose, forms,  on  a  white  screen,  placed  at  its  focal  distance,  a 
beautiful  picture  of  all  the  objects  which  are  opposite  to  it,  in 
their  exact  proportions,  symmetry,  and  colours.  But  this 
picture  evanishes  the  moment  the  lens  or  the  screen  is  re- 
moved. The  Daguerreotype  is  an  art  by  which  this  picture 
or  image  may  be  rendered  permanent.  It  derives  its  name 
from  M.  Daguerre,  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  who  was  in  partnership  with  M.  Nieper,  who,  as  early 
as  1814,  had  commenced  researches  on  this  subject;  but  Da- 
guerre had  given  up  the  idea  of  being  able  to  bring  his  me- 
thods to  perfection,  till  about  the  year  1838,  when  the  effects 
produced  by  his  art  began  to  excite  a  considerable  degree  of 
attention  ;  and  as  a  reward  for  disclosing  the  process  and  pub- 
lishing it  to  the  world,  the  French  government  bestowed  on 
the  inventor  and  his  partner  an  annuity  of  ten  thousand  francs  : 
{£4.1Q  13s.  4d.) — M.  Arago,  when  alluding  to  this  discovery, 
has  the  following  remark: — "No  person  has  ever  witnessed 
the  neatness  of  outline,  precision  of  form,  the  truth  of  colour- 
ing, and  the  sweet  gradations  of  tint,  displayed  by  the  camera, 
without  regretting  than  an  imagery  so  exquisite  and  so  faith- 
ful to  nature  could  not  be  made  to  fix  itself  permanently  on 
the  tablet  of  the  machine — who  has  not  put  up  his  aspiration 
that  some  means  might  be  discovered  by  which  to  give  reality 

such  instruments.  A  globular  decanter  of  water  makes  a  powerful  burn- 
ing-glass ;  and  house  furniture  has  been  set  on  fire,  by  incautiously  ex- 
posing it  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

21* 


246  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

to  shadows  so  lovely !  Yet,  in  the  estimation  of  all,  such  a 
wish  seemed  destined  to  take  its  place  among  other  dreams 
of  beautiful  things — among  the  glorious  but  impracticable 
conceptions  in  which  men  of  science  and  ardent  temperament 
have  sometimes  indulged.  This  dream,  notwithstanding,  has 
just  been  realized^ 

Our  limits  will  not  permit  to  give  a  detail  of  the  process  by 
which  the  eifect  now  stated  is  produced.  We  shall  just  state 
the  following  general  outline.  The  designs  taken  by  the  Da- 
guerreotype are  executed  upon  thin  plates  of  silver  plated  on 
copper.  The  silver  must  be  of  the  purest  kind,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  both  metals  not  to  exceed  that  of  a  stout  card.  Before 
placing  it  in  the  camera  the  following  operations  are  requisite: 
1.  The  plate  must  be  cleansed  and  highly  polished.  For  this 
purpose  a  little  of  fine  pumice  powder  is  put  into  a  muslin 
bag  and  shaken  over  the  plate,  and  it  is  then  rubbed  gently 
with  cotton  dipped  in  olive  oil.  Diluted  nitric  acid  is  then 
rubbed  over  the  plate  with  cotton,  and  then  rubbed  again  with 
pumice  and  dry  cotton  ;  and  afterwards  the  plate  is  to  be  sub- 
jected to  a  strong  heat.  2.  The  plate  has  to  receive  a  coating 
of  iodine.  To  accomplish  this  the  plate  is  fixed  upon  a  board, 
then  put  into  a  box  containing  a  little  dish  with  iodine  divided 
into  small  pieces,  and  allowed  to  remain  till  it  is  covered  with 
a  gold  coloured  coating,  which  process  must  be  conducted  in 
a  darkened  apartment.  3.  The  camera  is  next  placed  in  the 
front  of  the  landscape  or  object,  and  as  soon  as  the  focus  is 
adjusted,  the  light  is  excluded,  and  the  plate  put  in,  when,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  and  in  some  cases,  in  a  few 
seconds,  a  perfect  picture  or  design  is  obtained.  I  have  seen 
a  portrait  of  an  individual  taken  in  this  way  in  the  course  of 
half  a  minute.  4.  The  plate  is  next  placed  over  the  vapour 
of  mercury  to  bring  out  the  image,  which  is  not  visible  when 
withdrawn  from  the  camera.  The  image  is  not  visible  till 
after  the  lapse  of  several  minutes.  5.  The  coating  on  which 
the  design  was  impressed  is  to  be  removed  in  order  to  pre- 
serve it  from  being  decomposed  by  the  rays  of  light.  To  do 
tliis,  the  plate  is  placed  in  a  trough  containing  common  water, 
plunging  and  withdrawing  it  immediately,  and  then  plunging 
it  into  a  solution  of  salt  and  water  till  the  yellow  coating  has 
disappeared. 

Such  is  a  very  abridged  sketch  of  the  photogenic  operations 
of  M.  Daguerre.  When  finished  in  a  perfect  way,  the  designs 
thus  taken  on  the  plate  are  exceedingly  beautiful  and  correct, 
and  will  bear  to  be  inspected  with  a  considerable  magnifying 
power,  so  that  the  most  minute  portions  of  the  objects  deli- 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  247 

neated  may  be  perceived ;  and  it  has  been  discovered  that  an 
etching  of  the  design  can  be  taken  in  the  common  way,  and 
from  that  again  any  number  of  electrotype  copies  can  be  pro- 
duced. M.  Claudet,  the  patentee  of  this  invention  at  the  Ade- 
laide gallery,  London,  has  made  several  improvements,  par- 
ticularly in  taking  likenesses.  He  is  now  enabled  to  take  a 
likeness  in  one  second,  and  even  less — in  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye,  and  to  give  the  portrait  so  made  any  back  ground  that 
may  be  desired. 

This  invention  may  be  considered  as  still  in  its  infancy ; 
but  in  the  course  of  its  improvement,  its  results  may  be  highly 
beneficial  and  extensive.  To  use  tlie  words  of  Arago  :  '^  To 
copy  the  millions  of  millions  of  hieroglyphics,  which  entirely 
cover  to  the  very  exterior  the  great  monuments  at  Thebes, 
Memphis,  Carnoc,  &c.,  would  require  scores  of  years  and  le- 
gions of  artists.  With  the  Daguerrotype  a  single  man  would 
sutfice  to  bring  to  a  conclusion  this  vast  labour;  and  at  the 
same  time,  such  designs  shall  incomparably  surpass  in  fidelity, 
in  truth  of  local  colour,  the  works  of  the  ablest  artists."  It  is 
probable,  too,  that  this  art  may  be  applied  to  taking  exact 
pictures  of  the  heavenly  bodies — not  only  of  the  sun,  but 
even  of  the  moon,  the  planets,  and  the  stars.  The  plated  disks 
prepared  by  Daguerre  receive  impressions  from  the  action  of 
the  lunar  rays  to  such  an  extent  as  permits  the  hope  that  pho- 
tographic charts  of  the  moon  may  soon  be  obtained.  Nor  is 
it  perhaps  too  much  to  expect  that  the  rays  of  the  stars — even 
of  distant  nebulae,  may  thus  be  fixed,  and  a  delineation  of  their 
objects  produced,  which  shall  be  capable  of  being  magnified 
by  powerful  microscopes.  This  invention  leads  ns  to  con- 
clude that  we  have  not  yet  discovered  all  the  wonderful  pro- 
perties of  that  Light  w  hich  unveils  to  us  the  beauties  and 
sublimities  of  the  universe;  and  that  thousands  of  admirable 
agencies  and  objects,  hitherto  imknown,  may  soon  be  disclosed 
to  our  view  through  this  medium,  as  we  advance  in  our  re- 
searches and  discoveries. 

VL  Electricity. — This  name  has  been  given  to  a  science 
\vhich  explains  and  illustrates  the  operations  of  a  very  subtile 
fluid,  called  the  electric  fluids  which  appears  to  pervade  every 
part  of  nature,  and  to  be  one  of  the  chief  agents  employed  in 
producing  many  of  the  phenomena  of  the  material  world.  If 
a  piece  of  amber,  sealing-wax,  or  sulphur,  be  rubbed  with  a 
piece  of  flannel,  it  will  acquire  the  power  of  attracting  small 
bits  of  paper,  feathers,  or  other  light  substances.  If  a  tube  of 
glass,  two  or  three  feet  in  length,  and  an  inch  or  two  in  dia- 
meter, be  rubbed  pretty  hard,  in  a  dark  room,  with  a  piece  of 


248  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

dry  woollen  cloth,  besides  attracting  light  substances,  it  will 
emit  flashes  of  fire,  attended  with  a  crackling  noise.  Tills 
luminous  matter  is  called  electricity,  or  the  electric  fluid.  If 
a  large  globe,  or  cylinder  of  glass,  be  turned  rapidly  round, 
and  made  to  rub  against  a  cushion,  streams  and  large  sparks 
of  bluisii  fiame  will  be  elicited,  whicli  will  Hy  round  the  glass, 
attract  light  bodies,  and  produce  a  pungent  sensation,  if  the 
hand  be  held  to  it.  This  glass,  with  all  its  requisite  apparatus, 
is  called  an  electrical  machine.  It  is  found  that  this  fluid 
will  pass  along  some  bodies,  and  not  along  others.  The  bodies 
over  which  it  passes  freely  are  water,  and  most  other  fluids, 
except  oil  and  the  aerial  fluids ;  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  in 
general  all  the  metals,  semi-metals,  and  metallic  ores ;  which 
are  therefore  called  conductors  of  electricity.  But  it  will  not 
pass  over  glass,  resin,  wax,  sulphur,  silk,  baked  woods,  or 
dry  woollen  substances  ;  nor  through  air,  except  by  force,  in 
sparks^  to  short  distances.  These  bodies  are  therefore  called 
non-conductors. 

The  following  facts,  among  others,  have  been  ascertained 
respecting  this  wonderful  agent : — That  all  bodies  with  which 
we  are  acquainted  possess  a  greater  or  less  share  of  this  fluid — 
that  the  quantity  usually  belonging  to  any  body  produces  no 
sensible  effects  ;  but  when  any  surface  becomes  possessed  of 
7norc  or  less  than  its  natural  share,  it  exhibits  certain  appear- 
ances in  the  form  of  light,  sound,  attraction,  or  repulsion, 
•which  are  ascribed  to  the  power  called  electric — that  there  are 
two  different  species  of  the  electrical  fluid,  or  at  least  two 
different  modifications  of  the  same  general  principle,  termed 
positive  and  nrgative  electricity — that  positive  and  negative 
electricity  always  accomj^any  each  other;  for  if  a  substance 
acquire  the  one,  the  body  with  which  it  is  rubbed  acquires 
the  other — that  it  moves  with  amazing  rapidity,  having  been 
transmitted  through  wires  of  several  miles  in  length,  without 
taking  up  any  sensible  space  of  time;  and  therefore  it  is  not 
improbable,  that  were  an  insulated  conducting  substance  ex- 
tended from  one  continent  to  another,  it  might  be  made  to  fly 
to  the  remotest  regions  of  the  earth  in  a  few  seconds  of  time.* 
— that  is  has  a  power  of  suddenly  contracting  the  muscles  of 
animals,  or  of  giving  a  shock  to  the  animal  frame — that  this 
shock  may  be  communicated,  at  the  same  instant,  to  a  hun- 
dred persons,  or  to  any  indefinite  number  who  form  a  circle, 
by  joining  their  hands  together — that  it  may  be  accumulated 
to  sucli  a  degree  as  to  kill  the  largest  animals — that  vivid 
sparks  of  this  fluid,  attended  with  a  cracklmg  noise,  may  be 
*  See  Chap.  Ill,  Art.  Electric  Telegraph. 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  249 

drawn  from  different  parts  of  the  human  body,  when  the  per- 
son is  insulated^  or  stands  upon  a  stool  supported  by  glass  feet 
— that  electricity  sets  fire  to  gunpowder,  spirits  of  wine,  and 
other  inflammable  substances — -that  it  melts  iron  wire  and  de- 
stroys the  polarity  of  the  magnetic  needle — that  it  augments 
the  natural  evaporation  of  fluids,  promotes  the  vegetation  of 
plants,  and  increases  the  insensible  perspiration  of  animals  ; 
and  can  be  drawn  from  the  clouds  by  means  of  electrical  kites, 
and  other  elevated  conductors.  By  means  of  the  electrical 
power,  small  models  of  machinery  have  been  set  in  action ; 
Orreries  to  represent  the  movements  of  the  planets  have  been 
put  in  motion  ;  and  small  bells  have  been  set  a-ringing  for  a 
length  of  time;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  knowledge  we 
have  acquired,  of  the  mode  of  its  operation  in  the  system  of 
nature,  the  lightning's  of  heaven  have  been  arrested  in  their 
course,  and  constrained  to  descend  to  the  earth,  without  pro- 
ducing any  injurious  effects. 

From  these,  and  a  variety  of  other  facts  and  experiments, 
it  is  now  fully  ascertained  that  lightning  and  electricity  are 
identical ;  and  that  it  is  the  prime  agent  in  producing  the  awful 
phenomena  of  a  thunder-storm  ;  the  lightning  being  the  rapid 
motion  of  vast  masses  of  electric  matter,  and  thunder  tlie  //  >/.v', 
with  its  echoes,  produced  by  the  rapid  motion  of  the  lightning 
through  the  atmosphere.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that,  in 
combination  with  steam,  the  gases,  and  other  agents,  it  also 
produces  many  of  the  terrific  phenomena  of  earthquakes,  vol- 
canoes, whirlwinds,  water-spouts,  and  hurricanes,  and  the  sub- 
lime coruscations  of  the  aurora  horealis.  In  the  operations  of 
this  powerful  fluid,  we  behold  a  striking  display  of  the  sove- 
reignty and  majestic  agency  of  God.  In  directing  its  energies, 
"  his  way  is  in  the  whirlwind  and  the  storm,  and  the  clouds 
are  the  dust  of  his  feet ;  the  heavens  are  covered  with  sack- 
cloth, the  mountains  quake  before  him,  the  hills  melt,  the 
earth  is  burned  at  his  presence,  and  rocks  are  thrown  down 
by  him  :"*  It  is  easy  to  conceive,  that  by  a  few  slight  modi- 
fications produced  by  the  hand  of  Omnipotence,  this  powerful 
fluid  might  become  the  agent  of  producing  either  the  most 
awful  and  tremendous,  or  the  most  glorious  and  transporting 
scenes,  over  every  region  of  our  globe.  As  it  now  operates, 
it  is  calculated  to  inspire  us  rather  with  awe  and  terror  than 
with  admiration  and  joy;  and  to  lead  our  thoughts  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  state  of  man  as  a  depraved  intelligence,  and  a 
rebel  against  the  government  of  his  Maker. 

*  Nahum,  i,  3-6. 


250  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

Electricity  is  rapidly  extending  its  boundaries,  and  its  influ- 
ence as  an  important  agent  in  the  arts  ■,  and,  as  yet,  we  can 
form  no  adequate  conception  of  the  results  which  may  flow 
from  the  investigations  into  its  nature,  combinations,  and  ap- 
plications, which  are  now  making  by  the  scientific  world,  or 
of  the  powerful  eflects  it  may  produce,  when  thoroughly 
wielded  by  the  hand  of  genius.  It  has  already  been  applied 
to  many  useful  purposes — to  remove  obstructions  in  the  hu- 
man frame — to  cure  diseases — to  ascertain  the  depths  of  the 
sea — to  produce  explosions  for  effecting  mechanical  operations, 
and  for  conveying  intelligence  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and 
ninety-two  thousand  miles  in  a  second.  Among  its  recent 
applications  is  the  process  of  copying  ivith  perfect  accuracy 
engraved  copperplates^  medals^  seals^  &.c. — and  of  gilding, 
plating,  and  etching,  with  great  beauty  and  precision.  This 
art  has  been  denominated  electrotype,  and  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Spencer,  of  Liverpool,  in  ]839.  It  was  also 
discovered  on  the  continent  by  Professor  Jacobi.  The  mate- 
rials recommended  by  him  for  forming  the  moulds  on  which 
impressions  are  taken  are  fusible  metal^  wax^  and  stearine. 
When  a  copy  is  taken  from  any  copperplate  or  medal,  any 
nnniber  of  copies  can  be  produced  equally  as  good  as  the 
flrtt.  The  process  is  simple,  but  our  limits  will  not  permit 
to  enter  into  its  details.  The  reader  will  find  a  short  descrip- 
tion of  the  process  in  Chambers'  "  Information  for  the  People," 
No.  57,  Art.  Electricity^  &c.,  and  in  the  "  Practical  Mechanic 
and  Engineer's  Magazine,"  vol.  i,  p.  227. 

An  important  combination  of  the  electrotype  with  the  Da- 
guerreotype process  has  lately  been  discovered,  which  promises 
to  lead  to  some  important  results.  A  Daguerreotype  picture 
can  be  produced  in  the  ordinary  way,  as  formerly  described, 
it  can  be  etched  according  to  the  present  process,  and  from 
this  etching  an  indefinite  number  of  electrotj'pe  copies  can  be 
obtained.  As  an  illustration  of  the  perfection  attendant  on 
this  process,  the  inventor  states  that,  from  a  Daguerreotype 
plate  which  had  on  it  a  sign-board  measuring  one-tenth  by 
six-hundredths  of  an  inch,  five  lines  of  the  inscription  can  be 
distinctly  read  by  the  aid  of  a  microscope  applied  to  the  elec- 
trotype copy,  so  that,  as  the  author  remarks,  "instead  of  a 
plate  being  inscribed  as  drawn  by  Landseer,  and  engraved  by 
Cousins,  it  may  be  said,  drawn  by  light,  and  engraved  by  elec- 
tricity.'''' 

VJI.  Galvanism  is  intimately  connected  with  electricity, 
though  it  is  generally  considered  as  a  branch  of  chemistry. 
It  is  only  another  mode  of  exciting  electrical  action.     In  elec- 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  251 

tricity  the  eflects  are  produced  chiefly  by  mechanical  action ; 
but  the  effects  of  galvanism  are  produced  by  the  chemical 
action  of  bodies  upon  each  other.  If  we  take  a  piece  of  zinc, 
and  place  it  under  the  tongue,  and  lay  a  piece  of  silver,  as 
big  as  a  half-crown,  above  it ;  by  bringing  the  outer  edges  of 
these  pieces  in  contact,  we  shall  immediately  experience  a  pe- 
culiar and  disagreeable  taste,  like  that  of  copper.  The  same 
thing  may  be  noticed  with  a  guinea  and  a  piece  of  charcoal. 
If  a  person,  in  the  dark,  put  a  slip  of  tinfoil  upon  one  of  his 
eyes,  and  a  piece  of  silver  in  his  mouth,  by  causing  these 
piec'^s  to  communicate,  a  faint  flash  will  appear  before  his 
eyes.  If  a  living  frog  or  a  fish,  having  a  slip  of  tinfoil  pasted 
upon  its  back,  be  placed  upon  a  piece  of  zinc,  by  forming  a 
communication  between  the  zinc  and  tinfoil,  the  spasms  of  the 
muscles  are  excited.  These  and  similar  effects  are  produced 
by  that  modification  of  electricity  which  has  been  termed  gal- 
vanism. Three  different  conductors,  or  what  is  called  a  gal- 
vanic circle^  are  requisite  to  produce  such  effects.  A  piece 
of  copper,  a  piece  of  flannel,  moistened  with  water  or  acid,  and 
a  piece  of  zinc,  laid  upon  one  another,  form  a  circle ;  and  if 
this  circle  be  repeated  a  number  of  times,  a  galvanic  pile  or 
battery  may  be  formed,  capable  of  giving  a  powerful  shock. 
The  most  common  and  convenient  form,  however,  of  a  battery, 
is  found  to  be  a  trough  of  baked  wood,  three  or  four  inches 
deep,  and  as  many  wide.  In  the  sides  are  grooves,  opposite 
to  each  other,  into  each  of  which  is  placed  a  double  metallic 
plate  of  zinc  and  copper  soldered  together,  and  the  cells  are 
then  filled  either  with  salt  and  water,  or  with  a  solution  of 
nitrous  acid  and  water. 

By  means  of  the  galvanic  agency,  a  variety  of  surprising 
eflects  have  been  produced.  Gunpowder,  cotton,  and  other 
inflammable  substances,  have  been  inflamed — charcoal  has 
been  made  to  burn,  with  a  most  brilliant  and  beautiful  white 
llame — water  has  been  decomposed  into  its  elementary  parts — 
metals  have  been  melted  and  set  on  fire — fragments  of  diamond, 
charcoal,  and  plumbago,  have  been  dispersed,  as  if  they  had 
been  evaporated — platina,  the  hardest  and  heaviest  of  the  me- 
ials,has  been  melted  as  readily  as  wax  in  the  flame  of  a  candle 
— the  sapphire,  quartz,  magnesia,  lime,  and  the  firmest  com- 
pounds in  nature,  have  been  made  to  enter  into  fusion.  Its 
effects  on  the  animal  system  are  no  less  surprising.  When 
applied  to  a  fowl  or  a  rabbit,  immediately  after  life  is  extinct, 
it  produces  the  most  strange  and  violent  convulsions  on  tiie 
nervous  and  muscular  system,  as  if  the  vital  functions  were 
again  revived  :  and  when  applied  to  the  human  body  after 


252  CHniSTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

death,  the  stimulus  has  produced  the  most  horrible  contortions 
and  grimaces  in  the  muscles  of  the  head  and  face ;  and  the 
most  rapid  movements  in  the  hands  and  feet. 

Numerous  experiments  which  have  been  made  both  on 
dead  animals  and  on  human  subjects,  have  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  galvanism  possesses  some  sanative  as  well  as  ener- 
getic influence  on  the  actions  of  diseased  living  beings.  It 
has  been  found  to  effect  cures,  and  to  afford  relief  in  nervous 
disorders.  It  has  not  only  been  used  to  cure  the  afflicted  liv- 
ing, but  also  to  resuscitate  the  apparently  dead ;  and,  in  all 
cases  of  suspended  animation,  from  accidents  or  otherwise,  it 
has  been  found  to  be  a  test*  of  vitality,  and  the  surest  criterion 
of  recent  death.  A  celebrated  medical  writer  on  this  subject, 
in  Berlin,  strongly  recommends  its  use  in  rheumatism,  palsies, 
nervous  deafness,  hoarseness,  debility  of  sight,  white  swell- 
ings of  the  joints,  tumours  in  the  glands  of  the  neck,  and 
several  other  disorders.  It  is  found  that  it  possesses  not  only 
a  stimulating  power  over  the  nerves  and  muscles,  but  also 
ever  the  vital  forces.  M.  Spronger,  of  Jenna,  gives  an  account 
of  his  having  restored  the  sense  of  hearing  to  45  persons,  by 
means  of  this  singular  agent — to  four  of  whom  he  also  re- 
stored the  sense  of  smelling.  Galvanism  has  lately  been  em- 
ployed as  a  powerful  agent  for  blasting  rocks.  At  Glasgow, 
and  several  other  places,  its  agency  has  been  applied  with 
great  success.  At  one  blast  hundreds  of  tons  of  stones  have 
been  in  a  moment  loosened  from  the  rock.  It  is  found  that 
dry  sand  is  quite  sufficient  for  filling  the  perforation  in  the 
rock  where  the  charge  is  placed,  and  that  the  whole  process  is 
unaccompanied  with  the  smallest  degree  of  danger,  so  that, 
by  this  mode  of  blasting,  those  accidents  which  have  so  fre- 
quently happened  to  workmen  employed  in  such  opera- 
tions may  be  entirely  prevented. 

The  galvanic  agency  enables  us  to  account  for  the  follow- 
ing among  other  facts  : — Why  porter  has  a  different  and  more 
pleasant  taste  when  drunk  out  of  a  pewter  vessel,  than  out  of 
glass  or  earthen  ware, — why  a  silver  spoon  is  discoloured 
when  used  in  eating  eggs, — why  the  limbs  of  people,  under 
amputation,  are  sometimes  convulsed  by  the  application  of  the 
instruments, — why  pure  mercury  is  oxidized  when  amalga- 
mated with  tin, — why  works  of  metal,  which  are  soldered  to- 
gether, soon  tarnish  in  the  places  where  the  metals  are  joined, 
— and  why  the  copper  sheathing  of  ships,  when  fastened  with 
iron  nails,  is  soon  corroded  about  the  place  of  contact.  In 
all  these  cases  a  galvanic  circle  is  formed  which  produces  the 
effects.     We  have  reason  to  believe,  that,  in  combination  with 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY.  253 

the  discoveries  which  modern  chemistry  is  daily  unfolding, 
the  agencies  of  this  fluid  will  enable  us  to  carry  the  arts  for- 
ward towards  perfection,  and  to  trace  tlie  secret  causes  of  some 
of  the  sublimest  phenomena  of  nature. 

VIII.  Magnetism. — This  department  of  philosophy  de- 
scribes the  phenomena  and  the  properties  of  the  loadstone^  or 
natural  magnet.  The  natural  magnet  is  a  hard,  dark-coloured 
mineral  body,  and  is  usually  found  in  iron  mines.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  its  characteristic  properties  : — 1.  It  attracts 
iron  and  steel,  and  all  substances  which  contain  iron  in  its 
metallic  state.  2.  If  a  magnet  be  suspended  by  a  thread,  or 
nicely  poised  on  a  pivot,  or  placed  on  a  piece  of  wood,  and 
set  to  float  in  a  basin  of  water,  one  end  will  constantly  point 
nearly  towards  the  north  pole  of  the  earth,  and  the  other  to- 
wards the  south ;  and  hence,  these  parts  of  the  magnet  have 
been  called  the  north  and  south  poles.  3.  When  the  north 
pole  of  one  magnet  is  presented  near  to  the  south  pole  of 
another,  they  will  attract  each  other;  but  if  the  north  pole  of 
one  be  presented  to  the  north  pole  of  another,  or  a  south  pole 
to  a  south,  they  will  repel  each  other.  4.  A  magnet  placed 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  entirely  at  liberty,  inclines  one  of 
its  poles  to  the  horizon,  and,  of  course,  elevates  the  other  above 
it.  This  property  is  called  the  dipping  of  the  magnet.  5.  Mag- 
nets do  not  point  directly  north  and  south  :  but  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  with  a  different  declination  eastward  or 
westward  of  the  north  :  it  is  also  different  at  the  same  place 
at  different  times.  In  London,  and  in  most  places  of  Great 
Britain,  the  magnetic  needle  in  1824  pointed  about  24  degrees 
to  the  west  of  the  north.  For  more  than  160  years  previously 
it  had  been  gradually  declining  from  the  north  to  the  west ; 
but  seemed  then  to  have  begun  its  declination  to  the  eastward. 
6.  Any  magnet  may  be  made  to  communicate  the  pro{>erties 
now  mentioned  to  any  piece  of  iron  or  steel.  For  example, 
by  gently  rubbing  a  penknife  with  a  magnet,  it  will  be  immedi- 
ately invested  with  the  property  of  attracting  needles,  or  small 
pieces  of  iron  and  steel.  7.  Heat  weakens  the  power  of  a 
magnet,  and  the  gradual  addition  of  weight  increases  the  mag- 
netic power.  8.  The  properties  of  the  magnet  are  not  afl^ected 
either  by  the  presence  or  the  absence  of  air ;  and  the  magnetic 
attraction  is  not  in  the  least  diminished  by  the  interposition 
of  any  bodies  except  iron.  A  magnet  will  equally  affect  the 
needle  of  a  pocket  compass,  when  a  thick  board  is  placed  be- 
tween them,  as  when  it  is  removed.  It  has  been  lately  dis- 
covered, that  the  violet  rays  of  the  solar  spectrum^  when  con- 
densed with  a  convex  glass,  and  made  to  pass  along  a  piece 

22 


254  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER- 

of  steel,  have  the  power  of  communicating  to  it  the  magnetic 
virtue. 

The  cause  which  produces  these  singular  properties  of  the 
magnet,  has  hitherto  remained  a  mystery ;  but  the  knowledge 
of  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  has  been  applied  to  a  most  im- 
portant practical  purpose.  By  means  of  it,  man  has  now  ac- 
quired the  dominion  of  the  ocean,  and  has  learned  to  trace  his 
course  through  the  pathless  deep  to  every  region  of  the  globe. 
There  can  be  little  doubt,  that  magnetism  has  an  intimate  con- 
nexion with  electricity,  galvanism,  light,  heat,  and  chemical 
action  ;  and  the  discoveries  which  have  been  already  made, 
and  others  to  be  expected,  from  the  experiments  of  Morichini, 
Oersted,  Abraham,  Hansteen,  Barlow,  Beaufoy,  Ampere,  and 
Scoresby,  promise  to  throw  some  light  on  this  mysterious 
agent,  and  on  the  phenomena  of  nature  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected. 

Electro-Magxetism. — This  is  a  new  science,  founded  on 
the  connexion  which  is  now  ascertained  to  subsist  between 
electricity  and  magnetism.  In  the  year  1819,  Professor  Oer- 
sted, of  Copenhagen,  discovered  that,  when  a  wire  conducting 
electricity  is  placed  parallel  to  a  magnetic  needle,  properly 
suspended,  the  needle  will  deviate  from  its  original  or  natural 
direction.  1.  If  the  needle  be  above  the  conducting  wire,  and 
the  positive  electricity  goes  from  right  to  left,  the  north  end  of 
the  needle  will  be  moved  fro?n  the  observer,  or  to  the  west. 
2.  If  the  needle  is  beloiv  the  wire,  and  the  electricity  passes  as 
before,  the  north  end  of  the  needle  will  be  moved  towards  ihe 
observer,  or  to  the  east.  3.  If  the  needle  is  in  the  same  hori- 
zontal plane  with  the  wire,  and  is  between  the  observer  and 
the  wire,  the  7iorth  end  of  it  will  be  elevated.  4.  If  the  needle 
is  similarly  placed  on  the  opposite  side,  the  north  end  of  it 
will  be  depressed.  From  these  facts  M.  Oersted  concludes, 
that  the  magnetical  action  of  the  electrical  current  has  a  cir- 
cular motion  round  the  wire  which  conducts  it.  When  these 
experiments  were  commenced,  and  repeated  and  varied  by  other 
philosophers,  a  multitude  of  new  facts  were  soon  brought  to 
light  through  the  labours  of  Davy,  Faraday,  Ampere,  Barlow, 
Biot,  and  other  experimenters.  Two  very  important  facts  were 
ascertained  by  Ampere  and  Davy — that  the  conjunctive  wire 
itself  becomes  a  magnet — and  that  magnetic  properties  might 
be  communicated  to  a  steel  needle  not  previously  possessing 
them,  by  placing  it  in  an  electrical  current.  The  former  of 
these  facts  is  proved  by  throwing  iron  filings  on  paper  and 
bringing  them  under  the  wire,  when  they  will  immediately  ad- 
here to  it,  forming  a  tuft  round  it  10  or  12  times  the  diameter 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  255 

of  the  wire.  Oa  breaking  the  connexion  with  the  battery, 
however,  th<y  immediately  fall  off,  provinor  that  the  magnetic 
effect  depends  entirely  on  the  passage  of  the  electricity  through 
the  wire.  The  degree  of  force  of  the  magnetic  property,  thus 
communicated  to  the  uniting  wire,  is  considered  by  Sir  H. 
Davy,  to  be  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  electricity  trans- 
mitted through  it.  Hence  the  finer  the  wire  the  more  power- 
fully magnetic  was  it  rendered;  and  hence  also,  a  battery  of 
very  large  plates  was  found  to  give  the  strongest  magnetism  to 
the  wire  connecting  its  poles. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  results  of  experiments  which 
have  been  made  on  this  subject : — 1.  The  deviation  of  the 
magnetized  needle  is  greater  or  less,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  conducting  wire  ;  and  copper  appears  to  be  of  all  metals 
that  which  produces  the  most  powerful  effects,  2.  The  inten- 
sity of  an  electrical  current  is  constant  throughout  the  whole 
of  a  homogeneous  wire,  whatever  may  be  its  length.  3.  If  two 
homogeneous  conductors  be  simultaneously  adapted  to  the  same 
galvanic  pile — first,  the  absolute  intensity  of  the  current  de- 
creases in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  root  of  the  length  of 
the  wire — and  secondly,  when  the  thickness  of  the  wires  is 
altered,  the  intensity  of  the  current  increases  with  their  diame- 
ter to  a  certain  limit,  beyond  which  an  increase  of  thickness 
no  longer  produces  any  change  in  the  intensity  of  the  current. 
4.  When  the  conjunctive  wires  of  two  distinct  galvanic  ar- 
rangements are  made  to  approach  each  other,  magnetic  attrac- 
tions and  repulsions  are  observed.  Two  wires  of  copper,  silver, 
or  any  other  metal,  connecting  the  extremities  of  two  galvanic 
troughs,  being  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  and  suspended  so 
as  to  move  freely,  immediately  attract  and  repel  each  other, 
according  as  the  directions  of  the  currents  of  electricity  flow- 
ing through  them  are  the  same  or  different.  On  this  experi- 
ment is  founded  the  most  plausible  and  rational  theory  of  mag- 
netism, namely,  that  it  arises  from  the  attractions  and  repuU 
sions  of  currents  of  electricity  constantly  circulating  round 
every  magnet.  This  is  considered  as  explaining  the  reason 
why  the  magnetic  needle  places  itself  at  right  angles  to  a  wire 
conductingelectricity,  namely,  that  the  electric  current  passing 
along  the  wire  may  coincide  with  that  circulating  round  the 
magnet. 

These,  and  a  great  number  of  other  facts,  it  is  presumed, 
clearly  demonstrate  the  perfect  resemblance,  or  rather  identity, 
of  electricity  and  magnetism.  Magnetic  phenomena  are  thus, 
in  fact,  a  series  of  electrical  phenomena,  and  magnetism  may, 
with  propriety,  form  a  branch  of  electricity,  under  the  head 


256  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

of  electrical  currents.  Currents  of  electricity,  according  to 
this  theory,  are  essential  to  the  production  of  magnetic  pheno- 
mena •,  but  these  are  not  obvious  in  a  common  magnet.  M. 
Ampere  has  suggested  their  existence,  however,  and  has  so 
arranged  them  theoretically,  as  to  account  for  a  great  proportion 
of  magnetic  appearances.  A  magnet  he  conceives  to  be  an 
assemblage  of  as  many  electrical  currents  moving  round  it  in 
planes  perpendicular  to  its  axis,  as  there  may  be  imagined 
lines,  whicli,  without  cutting  one  another,  form  closed  curves 
round  it.  A  permanent  magnet,  then,  may  be  conceived  to 
be  a  mass  of  iron  or  steel  round  the  axis  of  which  electric 
currents  are  continually  circulating^  and  these  currents  attract 
all  other  electric  currents  f  owing  in  the  same  direction^  and 
repel  all  others  which  are  moving  in  an  opposite  direction. 
One  important  circumstance  is  always  to  be  kept  in  view,  that 
the  electric  currents  flow  round  every  magnet  in  the  same 
direction  in  reference  to  its  poles.  If,  for  instance,  we  place 
a  magnet  \vith  its  north  pole  pointing  to  the  north,  in  the 
usual  position  of  the  magnetic  needle,  the  current  of  electri- 
city flows  round  it  from  west  to  east — or  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  planets  revolve  and  the. earth  on  its  axis — or  on 
the  western  side  of  the  magnet  it  is  moving  upwards,  and  on 
the  eastern  side  downwards  ;  on  the  upper  side  from  west  to 
east,  and  on  the  lower  side  from  east  to  west.  This  is  ascer- 
tained to  be  a  uniform  law,  and  on  these  principles  most  of 
the  phenomena  of  magnetism  may  be  accounted  for. 

To  complete  the  view  of  Ampere's  doctrine  on  this  point, 
it  remains  only  to  explain  the  influence  of  the  earth  on  the 
magnet  by  which  the  needle  is  kept  always  in  one  position, 
nearly  coinciding  with  the  meridian.  He  maintains  that  cur- 
rents of  electricity,  analogous  to  those  which  circulate  round 
every  magnet,  are  constantly  floating  round  the  globe,  as  the 
current  of  electricity  in  a  galvanic  apparatus  moves  in  an  un- 
broken circuit  from  the  negative  to  the  positive  pole,  and 
from  it,  by  the  connecting  wire,  round  again  to  the  negative 
pole.  The  direction  of  these  currents  he  infers  to  be  the  same 
as  has  been  stated  with  artificial  magnets;  and  it  is  simply  by 
the  attractions  and  repulsions  of  these  terrestrial  currents, 
bringing  the  currents  round  the  needle  to  coincide  with  theifi, 
that  the  latter  always  points  to  the  north.  The  cause  of  these 
electric  currents,  thus  inferred  to  be  constantly  circulating  round 
the  globe,  is,  as  yet,  involved  in  obscurity.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  move  at  right  angles  to  the  magnetic  meridian,  or 
nearly  parallel  with  the  equator,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
earth  moving  from  us,  and  on  the  western  side  flowing  towards 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  257 

US.  It  is  conjectured  that  the  arrangement  of  the  materials  of 
the  globe  may  be  such  as  to  constitute  a  battery,  existing  like 
a  girdle  round  the  earth,  which,  though  composed  of  compa- 
ratively weak  materials,  may  be  sufficiently  extensive  to  pro- 
duce the  effects  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  Its  irregularity,  and 
the  changes  it  may  accidentally  or  periodically  suffer,  may 
explain  the  phenomenon  of  the  variation  of  the  compass; — or 
the  general  action  producing  the  currents  of  electricity  may 
be  affected  by  different  causes,  as  the  motions  of  the  earth, 
the  currents  of  the  atmosphere,  the  process  of  evaporation,  and 
the  solar  heat.  It  may  also  be  supposed  that  much  of  the 
variation  depends  on  the  progress  of  oxidation  in  the  con- 
tinental regions  of  the  globe. 

In  connexion  with  the  principles  and  phenomena  stated 
above, — by  means  of  a  galvanic  battery,  iron  mmj  he  tempo- 
rarily magnetized — in  other  words,  endowed  with  an  attrac- 
tive power,  so  long  as  it  is  kept  in  connexion  with  the  galvanic 
apparatus.  A  magnet  of  this  kind  is  generally  formed  in  the 
shape  of  a  horse  shoe;  and,  when  suspended  so  as  to  present 
the  extremities  downwards,  and  when  the  galvanic  commu- 
nication is  established,  the  magnetic  power  is  instantly  exerted, 
and  a  bar  of  iron  held  to  the  extremities  will  be  immediately 
attracted,  and  firmly  adhere.  But,  on  loosening  the  con- 
nexion with  the  battery,  the  magnetic  power  is  instantly  de- 
stroyed, and  the  bar  of  iron  falls  to  the  ground.  Such  mag- 
nets, which  have  obtained  the  name  of  electro-magnets^  have 
been  thus  made,  endowed  with  very  great  attractive  power,  so 
as  to  sustain,  in  some  cases,  a  weighi  of  above  two  thousand 
pounds,  or  nearly  a  ton.  These  magnets,  like  those  which 
possess  permanent  magnetism,  have  opposite  poles,  one  attract- 
ing, and  the  other  repelling. 

Tlys  new  science  of  electro-magnetism  has  opened  up  new 
and  more  expansive  views  to  the  philosophic  world,  in  refer- 
ence to  tlie  powers  of  electricity,  galvanism,  and  magnetism, 
and  their  relation  to  each  other;  and  in  the  progress  of  the 
investigations  which  are  now  going  forward,  vve  have  reason 
to  hope  that  some  of  tlie  hitherto  latent  principles  which  per- 
vade our  terrestrial  system  will  be  unfolded,  and  the  diversified 
phenomena  tiiey  produce  more  fully  explained  and  illustrated. 
It  is  probable,  t<io,  that  the  arts  will  be  improved  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  which  this  science  has  brought  to 
light;  and  they  have  already  been  applied  to  machinery  to 
produce  rotary  and  impulsive  motions. 

Such  is  a  faint  outline  of  some  of  the  interestiilg  subjects 
22* 


258  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

which  natural  philosophy  embraces.  Its  relation  to  religion 
will  appear  from  the  following  considerations  : — 

1.  Its  researches  have  led  to  the  invention  of  machines, 
engines,  and  instruments  of  various  kinds,  which  augment  the 
energies,  increase  the  comforts,  and  promote  the  general  im- 
provement of  mankind ;  and  these  objects  are  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  propagation  of  Christianity  through  the  world. 
If  we  admit  that,  in  future  ages,  the  religion  of  the  Bible  will 
shed  its  benign  influence  over  all  nations — that  the  external 
condition  of  the  human  race  will  then  be  prosperous  and  greatly 
meliorated  beyond  what  it  has  ever  been — and,  that  no  mira- 
cuJous  InteTposition  of  Deity  is  to  be  expected  to  bring  about 
such  desirable  events — it  will  follow,  that  such  objects  can  be 
accomplished,  only  in  the  ordinary  course  of  Providence,  by 
rational  investigations  into  the  principles  and  powers  of  na- 
ture, and  the  application  of  the  inventions  of  science  to  the 
great  objects  of  religion,  and  of  human  improvement,  as  I 
shall  endeavour  briefly  to  illustrate  in  the  following  chapter. 
As  the  destructive  effects  of  many  physical  agents,  in  the  pre- 
sent constitution  of  our  globe,  are,  doubtless,  a  consequence 
of  the  sin  and  depravity  of  man — we  have  reason  to  believe, 
that,  when  the  economy  of  nature  shall  be  more  extensively 
and  minutely  investigated,  and  the  minds  of  men  directed  to 
apply  their  discoveries  to  philanthropic  and  religious  objects, 
they  will  be  enabled  to  counteract,  in  a  great  measure,  those 
devastations  and  fatal  effects  which  are  now  produced  by  several 
of  the  powers  of  nature.  The  general  happiness  of  all  ranks, 
which  will  be  connected  with  the  universal  extension  of  Christi- 
anity, necessarily  supposes  that  this  object  will  be  accom- 
plished ;  for,  were  a  dread  of  destruction  from  the  elements 
of  nature  frequently  to  agitate  the  mind,  as  at  present,  no  per- 
manent tranquillity  would  be  enjoyed;  nor  would  that  ancient 
prediction,  in  reference  to  this  era,  receive  its  full  accomplish- 
ment, that  "  there  shall  be  nothing  to  hurt  or  destroy  in  all 
God's  holy  mountain,  when  the  earth  shall  be  full  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  Lord."  And  since  miraculous  interpositions 
are  not  to  be  expected,  to  what  quarter  can  we  look  for  those 
subordinate  agencies  by  which  this  object  is  to  be  effected,  but 
to  the  discoveries  and  inventions  of  philosophical  science  ? 

Science  has  already  enabled  us  to  remedy  many  of  those 
evils  which  are  the  accidental  effects  of  the  operation  of  phy- 
sical agents.  For  example — the  discoveries  of  the  philosopher, 
with  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  electric  fluid,  have  enabled  us 
to  construct  conductors  for  preserving  buildings  from  the  stroke 
of  lightning  :  and  we  have  every  reason  to  hope,  that,  in  the 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  259 

progress  of  electric,  galvanic,  and  chemical  science,  more  com- 
plete thunder-guards,  applicable  to  all  the  situations  in  which 
a  person  may  be  exposed,  will  be  invented.  Nay,  our  increas- 
ing knowledge  of  the  electric  fluid,  and  of  the  chemical  agents 
wliich  concur  in  its  operation,  may  enable  us  to  dissipate 
thunder  storms  altogether,  by  disturbing  the  electricity  of  the 
clouds,  by  means  of  a  series  of  elevated  artificial  conductors. 
This  is  not  only  possible,  but  has  already  been  in  some  degree 
effected.  The  celebrated  Euler  informs  us,  in  his  ''  Letters  to 
a  German  Princess,"  that  he  corresponded  with  a  Moravian 
priest,  named  Divlsch.,  who  assured  him,  "  that  he  had  averted, 
during  a  whole  summer,  every  thunder  storm  which  threat- 
ened his  own  habitation  and  the  neighbourhood,  by  means  of 
a  machine  constructed  on  the  principles  of  electricity — that 
the  machin.ery  sensibly  attracted  the  clouds,  and'  constrained 
them  to  descend  quietly  in  a  distillation,  without  any  b'lt  a 
very  distant  thunderclap."  Euler  assures  us,  that  "  the  fact  is 
undoubted,  and  confirmed  by  irresistible  proof."  Yea,  not 
only  may  the  destructive  effects  of  lightning  be  averted  by  the 
inventions  of  philosophy,  but  its  agency  may  be  rendered  sub- 
servient to  human  industry,  and  made  to  act  as  a  mechanical 
power.  This  effect,  too,  has  been  partially  accomplished. 
About  the  year  1811,  in  the  village  of  Philipsthal,  in  Eastern 
Prussia,  an  attempt  was  made  to  split  an  immense  stone  into  a 
a  muliitude  of  pieces,  by  means  of  lightning.  A  bar  of  iron, 
in  the  form  of  a  conductor,  was  previously  fixed  to  the  stone, 
and  th^xperiment  was  attended  with  the  most  complete  suc- 
cess ;  for,  during  the  very  first  thunder  storm,  the  lightning 
burst  the  stone  without  displacing  it.* 

It  is  therefore  probable,  that  in  the  future  ages  of  the  world, 
this  terrific  meteor,  and  other  destructive  agents,  which  now 
produce  so  much  alarm,  and  so  many  disastrous  effects,  may, 
by  the  aid  of  philosopiiy,  be  brought  under  the  control  of 
man,  and  be  made  to  minister  to  his  enjoyment. 

The  electric  fluid  has  also  been,  in  many  instances,  success- 
fully applied  in  curing  palsies,  rheumatisms,  spasms,  obstruc- 
tions, and  inflammation  ]  and  it  is  known  to  have  a  peculiar 
effect  on  the  nervous  system.  Lightning  has  been  known  to 
restore  the  blind  to  a  temporary  enjoyment  of  sight.  Mr. 
Campbell,  of  Succoth,  in  Dunbartonshire,  who  had  been  blind 
for  S€veral  years,  was  led  by  his  servant  one  evening  through 
the  streets  of  Glasgow,  during  a  terrible  thunder  storm.  The 
lightning  sometimes  fluttered  along  the  streets  for  a  quarter  of 

*«.See  Monthly  Magazine,  vol.  xxii,  p.  162. 


260  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

a  minute  without  ceasing.  While  this  fluttering  lasted,  Mr. 
Campbell  saw  the  street  distinctly,  and  the  changes  which  had 
been  made  in  that  part  by  taking  down  one  of  the  city  gates. 
When  the  storm  was  over,  his  entire  blindness  returned.  The 
following  instance,  stated  by  Professor  Robinson,  as  related 
by  one  of  his  friends,  is  no  less  remarkable.  One  evening  in 
autumn  he  was  sitting  with  a  gentleman  who  had  the  same 
disorder  as  the  gentleman  mentioned  above,  and  he  observed 
several  lambent  flashes  of  lightning.  Their  faces  were  turned 
to  the  parlour  window ;  and  immediately  after  a  flash  the  gen- 
tleman said  to  his  wife,  "  Go,  my  dear,  make  them  shut  the 
white  gate;  it  is  open  you  see."  The  lady  did  so  and  returned  ; 
and,  after  a  little  said,  "  But  how  did  you  know  that  the  gate 
was  open  .^"  He  exclaimed,  with  wonder,  "  I  saw  it  open,  and 
two  men  look  in,  and  go  away  again" — which  our  friend  also 
had  observed — the  gentleman,  on  being  close  questioned,  could 
not  recollect  having  had  another  glance,  nor  why  it  had  not 
surprised  him  ;  but  of  the  glimpse  itself  he  was  certain,  and 
described  the  appearance  very  exactly.* 

It  is  also  possible,  that  barren  deserts  might  be  enriched 
with  fertility,  and  immense  portions  of  the  desolate  wastes  of 
our  globe  prepared  for  the  support  and  accommodation  of  hu- 
man beings,  by  arresting  the  clouds,  and  drawing  down  their 
electrical  virtue  and  their  watery  treasure,  by  means  of  an  ex- 
tended series  of  elevated  metallic  conductors.  What  has  been 
now  stated  is  only  one  instance,  out  of  many  which  might  be 
produced,  of  the  extensive  and  beneficial  eflects  wiUch  may 
be  produced,  in  future  ages,  by  the  application  of  the  disco- 
veries of  natural  science. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy  enables  us  to  detect 
pretended  miracles,  and  to  discriminate  between  those  pheno- 
mena which  are  produced  by  the  powers  of  nature,  and  the 
supposed  eflects  of  diabolical  influence.  It  has  been  chiefly 
owing  to  ignorance  of  the  principles  of  natural  science,  that 
mankind,  in  all  ages,  have  been  so  easily  imposed  upon  by 
pretenders  to  supernatural  powers.  It  is  owing  to  the  same 
cause,  that  superstitious  notions  and  vain  alarms  have  spread 
their  influence  so  extensively  among  the  lower  ranks  of  the 
population  of  every  country.  The  pretended  miracles  by  which 
Pagan  and  Popish  priests  endeavour  to  support  the  authority 
of  their  respective  religious  systems,  and  every  species  t)f  de- 
grading superstition,  vanish   into  smoke,  when   examined  by 

*  Snp.  to  Ency.  Brit.  3 J  edil.  Art.  Thundci — wrilten  by  the  late  Dr. 
Robinson.  • 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  281 

the  liglit  of  modem  science ;  and  there  can  be  no  question, 
tliat  an  enlightened  missionary  would,  in  many  instances,  find 
the  principles  and  the  instruments  of  natural  philosophy  im- 
portant auxiliaries  in  undermining  the  fabric  of  heathen  idola- 
try and  priestcraft.  They  tend  to  dissipate  a  lliousand  idle 
terrors  which  haunt  and  agitate  the  human  mind  ;  to  detect  a 
tliousand  kinds  of  imposture  by  which  it  has  been  held  in 
cruel  bondage  ;  and  to  prevent  the  perpetration  of  those  deeds 
of  cruelty  which  have  uniformly  marked  the  reign  of  super- 
stition.* Had  our  forefathers  connected  a  knowledge  oC  this 
subject  with  their  study  of  the  Scriptures,  they  would  not 
have  brought  upon  themselves  that  indelible  disgrace  which 
now  attaches  to  their  memories,  on  account  of  their  having 
condemned  and  burned  at  the  stake  thousands  of  unhappy  wo- 
men, accused  of  crimes  of  which  they  could  not  possibly 
have  been  guilty.!  In  New  England,  towards  the  close  of  the 
17th  century,  the  witchcraft  frenzy  arose  so  high,  that  the  exe- 
cution of  witches  became  a  calamity  more  dreadful  than  the 
sword  or  the  pestilence.  Not  only  old  women,  but  children 
of  ten  years,  were  put  to  death ;  young  girls  were  stripped 
naked,  and  the  marks  of  witchcraft  searched  for  upon  their 
bodies  with  most  indecent  curiosity ;  and  those  spots  of  the 
scurvy  which  age  impresses  upon  the  bodies  of  old  men,  were 
taken  for  evident  signs  of  infernal  power.  So  that  ignorance 
of  the  laws  and  phenomena  of  nature  has  led  even  Christians 
to  commit  acts  of  injustice  and  horrid  cruelty.     For,  let  it  be 

*  Mr.  Douglass,  in  his  "  Hints  on  Missions,"  suggests,  that  natural 
philosophy  might  be  an  important  auxiliary  to  Christian  missionaries.  "All 
the  ancient  '  war  weapons  of  victory,'  excepting  miracles,  are  at  their 
disposal ;  and  new  instruments  of  still  greater  potency,  which  the  science 
of  the  latter  days  has  been  accumulating  for  universal  revolution  of  the 
mind,  are  ready  to  be  brought  into  action,  upon  a  scale  of  overpowering 
magnitude.  Even  the  single  resource  which  is  lost  may  yet  be  recom- 
pensed by  equivalents,  and  a  substitute,  in  many  respects,  may  be  found 
for  miracles.  The  first  effect  of  a  miracle  is,  to  rouse  the  attention,  and 
to  overawe  opposing  prejudices  ;  the  second,  to  afford  a  proof  of  religion 
of  which  it  is  a  sealing  accompaniment.  The  first  ohject  might  be  gained 
by  the  natural  magic  of  experimental  philosophy  ;  and  as  to  the  second,  the 
difference  in  the  proof  from  miracles,  lies  rather  in  its  being  more  circuit- 
ous, than  its  being  less  conclusive  at  the  present  day,  than  in  the  times  of 
the  Apostles."  Mr.  Moffat,  missionary  from  Africa,  lately  expressed  to 
,lhe  author  sentiments  similar  to  the  above,  and  intimated  his  ardent  desire 
that  he  might  be  furnished,  before  his  return,  with  an  apparatus  for  the 
purpose  of  expanding  the  minds  of  heathen  converts  in  the  knowledge  of 
rature. 

t  It  has  been  calculated  that,  in  Germany  alone,  the  number  of  victims 
that  suffered  for  the  supposed  crime  of  witchcraft  from  1484 — the  date  of 
the  bull  of  Pope  Innocent  VIII,  against  witchcraft — to  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  considerably  exceeds  one  hundred  thousand! 


262  cimisTiAxX  philosopher. 

remembered  that  it  was  Christian  magistrates  and  ministers, 
under  a  pretended  zeal  for  the  honour  of  God,  who  sanctioned 
such  cruel  and  unrighteous  decrees.  This  consideration, 
viewed  in  connexion  with  many  otliers,  tends  to  show,  that 
the  Christian  revelation,  considered  abstractly  by  itself,  without 
a  reference  to  tlie  visible  system  of  the  universe,  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  all  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  intended  ;  as,  on  the 
other  iiand,  the  study  of  the  works  of  nature  is  not  sufficient 
of  itself  to  lead  the  mind  to  the  true  knowledge  of  God,  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  discoveries  derived  from  the  sacred  oracles. 
For,  although  the  Bible  has  been  in  the  hands  of  Protestant 
Christians  ever  since  the  Reformation,  yet  it  is  only  since  the 
light  of  modern  science  began  to  diffuse  its  influence,  that  the 
superstitions  of  the  dark  ages,  and  the  vulgar  notions  respect- 
ing witchcraft,  necromancy,  and  other  species  of  infernal 
agency,  began  to  evanish,  even  from  the  minds  of  Christian 
teachers  ;  as  is  evident  from  the  writings  of  many  eminent 
divines  who  flourished  during  the  16th  and  17th  centuries. 
As  the  two  revelations  which  God  has  given  throw  a  mutual 
lustre  on  each  other,  the  one  must  always  be  considered  as  in- 
complete without  the  other.  Both  are  necessary,  in  order  "  to 
make  the  man  of  God  perfect,"  and  to  enable  him  to  prosecute, 
with  intelligence  and  success,  the  great  objects  of  religion ; 
and  the  Christian  minister  who  afiects  to  despise  the  aids  of 
science  in  the  cause  of  religion,  has  yet  much  to  learn  with 
respect  to  some  of  the  grand  bearings  of  the  Christian  system. 
3.  The  investigations  of  natural  philosophy  unfold  to  us  the 
incessant  agency  of  God^  and  the  plans  by  which  his  wise 
and  benevolent  designs  in  the  system  of  nature  are  accom- 
plished. From  the  immeasurable  globes  of  heaven,  down  to 
the  minutest  atomis,  we  perceive  a  regular  chain  of  causes  and 
effects,  conspiring,  in  a  thousand  different  modes,  to  accom- 
plish the  purposes  of  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness.  The 
operation  of  central  forces,  and  of  the  law  of  gravitation  on 
the  earth,  and  in  the  heavens — the  hydrostatical  laws  which 
regulate  the  pressure  and  the  motion  of  fluids — the  chemical 
properties  of  the  atmosphere,  its  undulatory,  refractive,  and 
reflective  powers — the  motion  of  the  rays  of  light,  and  the 
infinite  variety  of  effects  they  produce — the  process  of  eva- 
poration— the  agencies  of  electricity  and  galvanism — the  pro- 
perties of  the  magnet,  and  the  chemical  action  of  acids  and 
alkalies,  and  of  the  iiiinutest  particles  of  matter  upon  each 
other, — ought  to  be  viewed  as  so  many  modifications  of  the 
agency  of  Deity,  and  as  manifestations  of  his  wisdq^i,  in  car- 
rying forward  those  plans  which  regard  the  interests  of  his 


NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY.  263 

universal  kingdom;  just  as  we  consider  the  rise  and  fall  of 
empires,  the  revolutions  of  nations,  and  the  circulation  of  the 
Scriptures  in  heathen  lands,  as  so  many  acts  of  his  moral  ad- 
ministration as  the  Governor  of  mankind.  For,  let  it  be  care- 
fully remembered,  that  all  these  physical  agencies  have 
ultimately  a  moral  and  intellectual  bearing  ;  and  are  essentially 
connected  with  every  other  part  of  God's  providential  proce- 
dure. Though  we  may  be  apt  to  consider  them  as  so  many 
detached  and  insulated  pieces  of  machinery,  with  which  we 
have  little  concern,  or  may  even  disdain  to  notice  their  mode 
of  operation;  yet,  in  the  all-comprehensive  mind  of  Him  who 
takes  in,  at  one  glance,  the  whole  chain  of  causes  and  effects, 
they  are  as  essentially  connected  with  his  ultimate  purposes, 
and  the  eternal  destiny  of  man,  as  are  the  revelations  of  his 
word.  Were  a  single  principle  or  motion  which  now  animates 
the  system  of  nature  to  cease — were  the  agencies  of  elec- 
tricity, for  example,  or  the  principle  of  evaporation,  to  be  de- 
stroyed— the  physical  constitution  of  our  globe  would  instantly 
be  deranged;  nature  would  be  thrown  into  confusion;  and  the 
sentient  and  intellectual  beings  that  now  inhabit  the  earth, 
would  either  be  destroyed,  or  plung-ed  into  an  abyss  of  misery. 
If  therefore  we  admit,  that  the  moral  agency  of  God  is  worthy 
of  our  contemplation,  we  ought  to  consider  his  physical 
operations  also  as  no  less  worthy  of  our  study  and  investiga- 
tion ;  since  they  form  the  groundwork  of  all  his  other 
manifestations. 

There  is  nothing,  however,  which  so  strikingly  charac- 
terizes the  bulk  of  mankind,  and  even  the  great  mass  of  the 
Christian  world,  as  that  apathy  and  indifference  with  which 
they  view  the  wonders  of  creation  which  surround  them. 
They  can  look  on  all  that  is  grand  and  beautiful  and  bene- 
ficent in  nature,  without  feeling  the  least  sentiment  of  admira- 
tion or  of  gratitude  to  that  Being  who  is  incessantly  operating 
within  them  and  around  them  ;  and  they  are  disposed  to  con- 
sider the  experiments  of  philosophers,  by  which  the  wonder- 
ful agency  of  God  is  unveiled,  as  only  so  many  toys  and 
amusements  for  the  entertainment  of  children.  They  would 
prefer  the  paltry  entertainments  of  a  card-table,  of  a  ball-room, 
or  of  a  gossiping  party,  to  the  inspection  of  the  nicest  pieces 
of  Divine  mechanism,  and  to  the  contemplation  of  the  most 
august  scene  in  nature.  However  lightly  some  religionists 
may  be  disposed  to  treat  this  subject,  that  spirit  of  indifference 
with  which  the  visible  works  of  God  are  treated,  must  be 
considered  as  flowing  from  the  same  depraved  principle,  which 
leads  multitudes  to  reject  the  revelations  of  the  Bible,  and  to 


264  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

trifle  with  llieir  everlasting  interests,  "  Man,"  says  Rollin, 
"lives  ill  tlie  midst  of  a  world  of  which  he  is  the  sovereign,  as 
a  stranger,  wlio  looks  with  indifference  upon  all  that  passes  in 
it,  and  as  if  it  were  not  his  concern.  The  universe,  in  all  its 
parts,  declares  and  points  out  its  Author;  but,  for  the  most 
part,  to  the  deaf  and  blind,  who  have  neither  ears  to  hear,  nor 
eyes  to  see.  One  of  the  greatest  services  that  philosophy  can 
do  us,  is  to  avs'aken  us  from  this  drowsiness,  and  rouse  us 
from  this  lethargy,  which  is  a  dishonour  to  humanity,  and  in 
a  manner  reduces  us  below  the  beasts,  whose  stupidity  is  the 
consequence  of  their  nature,  and  not  the  effect  of  neglect  or 
indifference,  it  awakens  our  curiosity,  it  excites  our  atten- 
tion, and  leads  us,  as  it  were,  by  the  hand,  through  all  the 
parts  of  nature,  to  induce  us  to  study  and  search  out  the  won- 
derful works  of  it."* 

Since,  therefore,  the  science  of  natural  philosophy  is  con- 
versant about  the  works  of  the  Almighty,  and  its  investigations 
have  a  direct  tendency  to  illustrate  the  perfections  of  his  na- 
ture, to  unveil  the  plan  of  his  operations,  to  unfold  the  laws 
by  which  he  governs  the  kingdom  of  universal  nature,  and  to 
display  the  order,  sym.metry,  and  proportion,  which  reign 
throughout  the  whole — it  would  be  needless  to  enter  into  any 
further  process  of  reasoning,  to  show  that  the  study  of  it  is 
connected  with  the  great  objects  of  religion.  Whatever 
studies  tend  to  raise  our  minds  to  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  all 
worlds — to  expand  our  views  of  his  infinite  knowledge  and 
wisdom, — to  excite  our  gratitude  and  our  admiration  of  the  be- 
neficent designs  which  appear  in  all  his  arrangements — to 
guard  us  against  erroneous  conceptions  of  his  providential 
procedure — and  to  furnish  us  with  important  auxiliaries  for 
extending  the  influence  of  his  religion  through  the  world — must 
always  be  interesting  to  every  Christian  who  wishes  to  enlarge 
his  intellectual  views,  and  to  make  progress  in  the  knowledge 
of  God. 

CHEMISTRY. 

This  science,  which  is  intimately  related  to  the  preceding, 
has  for  its  ol)ject  to  ascertain  the  ingredients,  or  first  princi- 
ples, of  which  all  matter  is  composed — to  examine  the  com- 
pounds formed  by  the  combinations  of  these  ingredients — to 
investigate  those  changes  in  natural  bodies,  which  are  not  ac- 
companied with  sensible  motion,  and  the  nature  of  the  power 
which  produces  these  combinations  and  changes. 

*  Bolles  I/ettres,  vol.  iv. 


CHEMISTRY.  265 

Within  the  limits  of  the  last  half  century,  the  empire  of 
chemistry  has  been  wonderfully  extended.  From  an  obscure 
and  humble  place  among  the  objects  of  study,  it  has  risen  to 
a  high  and  dignified  station  among  those  sciences  which  improve 
and  adorn  the  human  mind.  No  longer  confined  to  the  paltry 
and  mercenary  objects  of  searching  for  the  philosopher's  stone, 
or  furnishing  a  little  amusement,  it  now  extends  its  sway  over 
all  the  arts  which  minister  to  the  comfort  and  improvement 
of  social  life,  and  over  every  species  of  animate  and  inanimate 
matter,  within  the  range  of  human  investigation.  There  is 
scarcely  any  science  so  immediately  conducive  to  social  im- 
provement and  human  comfort.  To  whatever  art  or  manufac- 
ture we  turn  our  attention,  we  find  that  it  has  either  been 
created  by  chemistry,  or  is  indebted  to  its  discoveries  for  some 
of  its  greatest  improvements ;  and  to  whatever  process  in  thp 
material  world  we  direct  our  investigations,  the  principles  of 
this  science,  as  deduced  from  modern  experiments  and  dis- 
coveries, are  capable  of  being  applied.  "  The  forms  and  ap- 
pearances," says  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  "of  the  beings  and 
substances  of  the  external  world,  are  almost  infinitely  various, 
and  they  are  in  a  state  of  continued  alteration.  Even  the  earth 
itself,  throughout  its  whole  surface,  undergoes  modifications. 
Acted  on  by  moisture  and  air,  it  affords  the  food  of  plants; 
an  immense  number  of  vegetable  productions  arise  from  appa- 
rently the  same  materials ;  these  become  the  substance  of 
animals ;  one  species  of  animal  matter  is  converted  into  an- 
other ;  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful  of  the  forms  of  organized 
life  ultimately  decay,  and  are  resolved  into  inorganic  aggre- 
gates ;  and  the  same  elementary  substances,  differently  ar- 
ranged, are  contained  in  the  inert  soil;  or  bloom,  and  emit 
fragrance  in  the  flower;  or  become,  in  animals,  the  active 
organs  of  mind  and  intelligence.  In  artificial  operations, 
changes  of  the  same  order  occur :  substances  having  the  cha- 
racters of  earth  are  converted  into  metals ;  clays  and  sands 
are  united,  so  as  to  become  porcelain;  earths  and  alkalies  are 
combined  into  glass  ;  acrid  and  corrosive  matters  are  formed 
from  tasteless  substances ;  colours  are  fixed  upon  stuffs ;  or 
changed,  or  made  to  disappear;  and  the  productions  of  the 
vegetable,  mineral,  and  animal  kingdoms,  are  converted  into 
new  forms,  and  made  subservient  to  the  purposes  of  civilized 
life.  To  trace,  in  detail,  those  diversified  and  complicated 
phenomena,  to  arrange  them,  and  deduce  general  laws  from 
he  business  of  chemistry."* 


*  Elements  of  Chemical  Pliilosophv. 
23 


^Q6  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER^ 

Chemists  have  arranged  the  general  forms  of  matte?'  into  the 
four  following  classes  : — The  Jii'sf.  class  consists  of  solids^ 
which  form  the  principal  parts  of  the  globe,  and  which  differ 
from  each  other  in  hardness,  colour,  opacity,  transparency, 
density,  and  other  properties.  The  second  class  consists  of 
FLUIDS,  such  as  water,  oils,  spirits,  &c,,  whose  parts  possess 
freedom  of  motion,  and  require  great  mechanical  force  to 
make  them  occupy  a  smaller  space.  The  third  class  compre- 
hends ELASTIC  FLUIDS,  or  GASES,  which  cxist  freely  in  the 
atmosphere ;  but  may  be  confined  by  solids  and  fluids,  and 
their  properties  examined.  Their  parts  are  highly  movable, 
compressible,  and  expansive  ;  they  are  all  transparent ;  they 
present  two  or  three  varieties  of  colour ;  and  they  differ 
greatly  in  density.  The  fourth  class  comprehends  ethereal 
svBSTANCEs,  which  are  known  to  us  only  in  their  states  of 
motion,  when  acting  upon  our  organs  of  sense,  and  which  are 
not  susceptible  of  being  confined.  Such  are  the  rays  of  Uglily 
and  radiant  heat^  which  are  incessantly  in  motion,  throughout 
the  spaces  that  intervene  between  our  globe,  and  the  sun  and 
the  stars.  Chemists  divide  the  substances  in  nature  also  into 
SIMPLE  and  coMPOurvD.  Simple  substances  are  those  which 
have  never  yet  been  decomposed,  nor  formed  by  art.  Com- 
pound substances  are  those  which  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  or  more  simple  substances.  The  following  are  all  the 
simple  substances  with  which  we  are  at  present  acquainted : 
Caloric,  light,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  carbon,  hydrogen, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  the  metals,  and  some  of  the 
earths.  All  that  I  propose  under  this  article  is,  simply  to 
state  some  of  the  properties  of  two  or  three  of  these  simple 
substances. 

Caloric,  or  elementary  fire,  is  the  name  now  given  by  che- 
mists to  that  element  or  property,  which,  combined  with  va- 
rious bodies,  produces  the  sensation  of  Aert/,  while  it  is  passing 
from  one  body  to  another.  This  substance  appears  to  pervade 
the  whole  system  of  nature.  There  are  six  different  sources 
from  whence  caloric  may  be  procured.  It  may  be  produced 
by  comhusiion^'m  which  process  the  oxygen  gas  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  decomposed,  and  caloric,  one  of  its  component  parts, 
set  at  liberty — hy  friction^  or  the  rubbing  of  two  substances 
against  each  other — by  percnssion^  as  the  striking  of  steel 
against  a  piece  of  flint — by  the  mixture  of  two  or  more  suh- 
stances,  as  when  sulphuric  acid  is  poured  upon  water  or  mag- 
nesia— by  electricity  and  galvanism.  The  discharge  of  an 
electric  or  galvanic  battery,  will  produce  a  more  intense  degree 
of  heat  than  any  other  means   whatever      But  ihe  princi])al. 


CHEMISTRY-.  267 

and  probably  the  original  source  of  caloric,  is  the  sux,  which 
furnishes  the  earth  with  a  regular  supply  for  the  support  and 
nourishment  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  tribes.  From  this 
source  it  moves  at  the  rate  of  192,000  miles  in  a  second  of 
time;  for  it  has  been  already  stated,  that  the  sun  sends  forth 
rays  of  heat,  which  are  distinct  from  those  which  produce 
illumination,  and  which  accompany  them  in  their  course 
throuo-h  the  ethereal  regfions. 

Caloric  is  the  cause  ol'  Jluidiiy,  in  all  substances  which  are 
capable  of  becoming  fluid.  A  certain  portion,  or  dose  of  it, 
reduces  a  solid  body  to  the  state  of  an  incompressible  fluid  ; 
a  larger  portion  brings  it  to  the. state  of  an  aeriform  or  gaseous 
fluid.  Thus,  a  certain  portion  of  caloric  reduces  ice  to  a  state 
of  water;  a  larger  portion  converts  it  into  steam  or  vapour. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  hardest  rocks,  the  densest 
metals,  and  every  solid  substance  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
might  be  converted  into  a  fluid,  and  even  into  a  gas,  were  they 
submitted  to  the  action  of  a  very  high  temperature.  This  sub- 
stance is  called  sensible  caloric,  when  it  produces  the  sensa- 
tion of  heat ;  and  latent  caloric,  v/hen  it  forms  an  insensible 
part  of  the  substance  of  bodies.  One  of  the  principal  effects 
of  caloric  is  the  expansion  of  bodies.  All  bodies,  with  a  very 
few  exceptions,  are  capable  of  expansion  by  means  of  heat; 
the  gases  being  the  most  expansive,  and  solids  the  least  sus- 
ceptible of  expansion.  The  expansion  of  gases  or  any  aeri- 
form substance  is  illustrated  by  the  experiment  of  a  half-blown 
bladder  held  before  a  fire,  as  stated  under  the  article  Pneuma- 
tics^ (p.  241.)  The  CLxpansion  of  solids  is  illustrated  by  the 
following  process  :  When  the  iron  rim  of  a  cart-wheel  is  to  be 
put  on,  it  is  first  heated  to  a  considerable  degree.  When  hot, 
the  circle  is  somewhat  larger  than  when  cold,  and  thus  easily 
slips  round  the  wheel;  but,  as  it  cools,  the  circle  decreases, 
and  firmly  binds  together  the  wood  work  of  which  the  wheel 
is  composed.  In  reference  to  Jluid  bodies  the  same  fact  is 
exemplified  in  the  thermometer — the  mercury  or  spirit  of  wine 
in  which  rises  or  falls  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  heat 
which  is  applied* to  the  instrument.  Other  effects  of  heat  are 
Uqidfcatioiu,  as  when  ice  is  converted  into  water — vaporisa- 
tion^ as  when  water  is  converted  into  steam — ignition^  as  when 
bodies  by  heat  are  made  to  produce  flame — and  evaporation^ 
when  substances  send  off*  vapour  from  their  surfaces  at  tem- 
peratures below  the  boiling  point.  The  heat  of  the  sun  and 
other  causes  produce  this  effect  every  day  over  the  whole  sur- 
face of  the  globe.  An  immense  quantity  of  vapour  is  thus 
continually  rising  from  the  surface  of  the  land  and  seas,  which 


268  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER- 

is  either  formed  into  rloiids,  or  condensed  into  rains  or  dew— 
Avhich  process  is  of  most  essential  service  throughout  the 
whole  economy  of  the  physical  constitution  of  our  globe. 
All  bodies  are,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  conductors  of  caloric. 
Metals  and  liquids  are  good  conductors  of  heat;  but  silk, 
cotton,  wool,  wood,  &c,,  are  bad  conductors  of  it.  For  ex- 
ample, if  we  put  a  short  poker  into  the  fire  at  one  end,  it  will 
soon  become  hot  at  the  other;  but  this  will  not  happen  with 
a  piece  of  wood  of  the  same  length,  and  under  the  same  cir- 
cumstances. A  person  with  a  silken  purse,  containing  metal 
coin,  may  stand  so  near  the  fire,  as  to  make  the  metal  almost 
too  hot  to  touch,  though  the.  temperature  of  the  purse  will 
apparently  be  scarce  altered.  If  a  hand  be  put  upon  a  hot 
body,  part  of  the  caloric  leaves  the  hot  body  and  enters  the 
hand,  producing  the  sensation  of  heat.  On  the  contrary,  if  a 
hand  be  put  on  a  cold  body,  as  a  piece  of  iron,  or  another 
colder  hand,  part  of  the  caloric  contained  in  the  hand  leaves 
it  to  unite  with  the  colder  body,  producing  the  sensation  of 
cold.  In  short,  caloric  is  diffused  throughout  all  bodies,  and 
enters  into  every  operation  in  nature  ;  and,  were  it  not  for  the 
influence  of  this  subtile  fluid,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
whole  matter  of  the  universe  would  be  condensed  into  a  solid 
mass. 

Oxygen  is  a  very  pure,  subtile,  and  elastic  substance, 
generally  diffused  throughout  nature ;  but  is  never  found 
iniless  in  combination  with  other  substances.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  important  agents  in  nature;  there  being  scarcely  a 
single  process,  whether  natural  or  artificial,  in  which  oxygen 
has  not  some  important  share.  When  combined  with  caloric, 
it  is  called  oxygen  gas,  which  forms  one  of  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  a  permanently  elastic  fluid, 
transparent,  colourless,  and  destitute  of  taste  and  smell  :  one 
hundred  cubic  inches  of  it  weigh  33-9153  grains,  that  is,  nearly 
thirty-four  grains.  And  as  the  same  bulk  of  common  air 
weighs  30*8115  grains  under  the  same  circumstances,  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  oxygen  is  reckoned  1-1007,  that  of  common  air 
being  reckoned  TOOO,  though  some  chemists  have  adopted 
1-111  as  its  specific  gravity  compared  with  atmospheric  air. 
In  this  state,  it  forms  the  principle  of  combustion ;  producing 
the  most  rapid  deflagration  of  all  combustible  substances,  if 
a  lighted  taper  be  let  down  into  a  jar  of  oxygen  gas,  it  burns 
with  such  splendour  that  the  eye  can  scarcely  bear  the  glare 
of  light,  and  at  the  same  time  produces  a  much  greater  heat 
than  wiien  burning  in  common  air.  U  a  steel  wire,  or  a  thin 
file,  liaving  a  sharp  point,  armed  with  a  piece  of  wood  in  in-. 


CHEMISTRY.  269 

flammation,  be  introduced  into  a  jar  filled  with  this  gas,  the 
steel  will  Uike  Mre,  and  its  combustion  will  continue  producing 
a  most  brilliant  phenomenon.  It  has  been  proved,  by  nume- 
rous experiments,  that  this  gas  is  so  essential  to  combustion, 
that  no  substance  will  burn  in  common  air  which  has  been 
previously  deprived  of  its  oxygen.  It  is  also  essential  to  the 
support  of  animal  life ;  so  that  man,  and  all  the  inferior  ranks 
of  animated  nature,  may  be  said  to  depend  upon  this  fluid  for 
their  existence.  Its  basis  gives  the  acid  character  to  all  mine- 
ral and  vegetable  salts  ;  and  the  calcination  of  metals  is  alto- 
gether eflected  by  their  union  with  oxygen.  It  constitutes 
the  basis  both  of  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  the  earth, 
and  of  the  water  which  forms  its  rivers,  seas,  and  oceans.  It 
pervades  the  substance  of  all  the  vegetable  tribes,  and  enables 
them  to  perform  their  functions;  and,  in  combination  with  the 
different  metals,  serves  the  most  important  purposes  in  the 
useful  arts.  In  the  operation  of  this  elementary  principle,  we 
perceive  a  striking  display  of  the  agency  of  the  Creator,  and 
of  the  admirable  means  which  his  wisdom  has  contrived  for 
preserving  in  due  order  the  system  of  nature.  And  as  this 
wonderful  substance  is  so  essentially  necessary  to  animal  and 
vegetable  existence,  every  thing  is  so  arranged  as  to  produce 
a  regular  supply  of  it,  notwithstanding  its  incessant  changes, 
and  the  multifarious  combinations  into  which  it  is  continually 
entering. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary  effects  of  oxygen  appears, 
when  it  is  combined,  in  a  certain  proportion,  with  nitrogen, 
so  as  to  form  the  gaseous  oxide  of  nitrogen,  or  what  is  com- 
monly called  nitrous  oxide.  This  gas  consists  'of  sixty-three 
parts  nitrogen,  and  thirty-seven  oxygen,  by  weight.  When 
inhaled  into  the  lungs,  it  produces  an  extraordinary  elevation 
of  the  animal  spirits,  a  propensity  to  leaping  and  running,  in- 
volutary  fits  of  laughter,  a  rapid  flow  of  vivid  ideas,  and  a  thou- 
sand delightful  emotions,  without  being  accompanied  with  any 
subsequent  feelings  of  debility.  This  circumstance  shows 
what  a  variety  of  delightful  or  pernicious  effects  might  flow 
from  the  slightest  change  in  the  constitution  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, were  the  hand  of  the  Almighty  to  interpose  in  altering 
the  proportion  of  its  constituent  parts ;  for  atmospheric  air  is 
composed  of  seventy-nine  parts  of  nitrogen,  and  twenty-one 
of  oxygen,  which  is  not  a  very  different  proportion  from  the 
above.  Another  gas,  called  nitric  oxide,  composed  of  fifty- 
six  parts  oxygen,  and  forty-four  nitrogen,  produces  instant 
suffocation  in  all  animals  that  attempt  to  breathe  it.  One  of 
the  most  corrosive  acids,  the  nitrous  acid,  or  aquafortis,  is 

23* 


270  CHRISTIAN  FHILOSOPIIER. 

composed  of  seventy-five  parts  oxygen,  and  twenty-five  parts 
nitrogen  ;  so  that  we  are  every  moment  breathing  a  certain 
substance,  which,  in  another  combination,  would  produce  the 
most  dreadful  pain,  and  cause  our  immediate  destruction.  What 
a  striking  proof  does  this  afford  of  the  infinite  comprehension 
of  the  Divine  Mind,  in  foreseeing  all  the  consequences  of  the 
elements  of  nature,  and  in  directing  their  numerous  combina- 
tions in  such  a  manner  as  to  promote  the  happiness  of  ani- 
mated beings  ! 

Nitrogen,  or  azote^  is  a  substance  generally  diffused  through- 
out nature,  and  particularly  in  animal  bodies.  It  is  not  to  be 
found  in  a  solid  or  liquid  state,  bnt,  combined  with  caloric,  it 
forms  nitrogen  gas,  M^hich  is  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. It  enters  extensively  into  combination  with  various  sub- 
stances ;  it  is  an  abundant  element  in  animal  matter;  and  its  ex- 
istence in  such  large  quantity  is  a  chief  distinction  between  the 
constitution  of  the  substances  which  compose  animal  and  vege- 
table matter.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0-9748,  which  is  lighter  than 
common  atmospheric  air,  and  therefore  ascends  in  it.  Were 
it  heavier  it  would  accumulate  to  such  a  degree  in  our  apart- 
ments as  to  be  pernicious  and  even  destructive  to  our  health 
and  existence.  It  is  incapable  of  supporting  either  flame  or 
animal  life.  This  is  proved  by  introducing  an  animal,  or  a 
burning  candle,  into  a  vessel  full  of  this  gas  ;  in  which  case, 
the  animal  is  suddenly  suffocated,  and  the  candle  instantly  ex- 
tinguished. It  is  this  gas  which  is  expelled  from  the  lungs  at 
every  expiration,  and,  rising  over  our  heads,  soon  enters  into 
new  combinations.  Though  it  is  destructive  to  animal  life, 
it  appears  to  be  favourable  to  plants,  which  vegetate  freely  when 
surrounded  with  nitrogen. 

Hydrogen  is  another  elementary  substance,  abundant  in 
nature,  and,  when  united  to  caloric,  forms  hydrogen  gas.  It 
is  one  of  the  constituent  parts  of  water ;  for  it  has  been  com- 
pletely demonstrated  by  experiment,  that  water  is  composed 
of  eighty-five  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen,  and  fifteen  of  hydro- 
gen, in  every  hundred  parts  of  the  fluid.  This  gas  was  formerly 
known  by  the  name  of  iiijlammable  air.  It  is  distinguished 
among  miners  by  the  name  of  fire-damj) ;  it  abounds  in  coal- 
mines, and  sometimes  produces  the  most  tremendous  explo- 
sions.*    It  is  incapable  by  itself  of  supporting  combustion, 

*  It  appears  from  the  first  report  of  the  "  Children's  Employment  Com- 
mission," appointed  by  ParUanient  in  1842,  that,  al  (he  very  least,  fifteen 
hundred  lives  have  been  sacrificed  in  and  about  the  Tyne  and  Wear  col- 
lieries in  the  neighbourhood  of  Newcastle  within  the  last  forty  years,  chiefly 
by  the  explosions  of  hydrogen  iias  which  have  taken  place  in  the  coal- 
mines.    To  counteract  such  effects,  Sir  II.  Davy,  in  1815,  displayed  his 


CHEMISTRY.  271 

and  cannot  be  breathed  without  the  most  imminent  danger. 
It  is  the  chief  constituent  of  oils,  fats,  spirits,  ether,  coals, 
and  bitumen  ;  and  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  agents  which 
produce  the  ig7iis  faiui^  and  the  northern  lights.  It  is  the 
lightest  of  all  ponderable  bodies,  being  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
times  lighter  than  common  air.  A  hundred  cubic  inches  of  it 
weigh  about  two  and  a  quarter  grains.  On  account  of  its  great 
levity,  it  is  used  for  filling  air  balloons.  In  contact  with  at- 
mospheric air,  it  burns  with  a  pale  blue  colour.  When  mixed 
with  oxygen  gas,  it  may  be  exploded,  like  gunpowder,  with  a 
violent  report.  Carhuretted  hydrogen  gas.,  which  is  carbon 
dissolved  by  hydrogen,  is  that  beautiful  gas  which  is  now  em- 
ployed in  lighting  our  streets,  shops,  and  manufactories. 

Carbon  is  another  simple  substance  extensively  diffused 
throughout  nature.  It  is  found  pure  and  solid  only  in  the 
diamond ;  but  it  may  be  procured  in  the  state  of  charcoal^  by 
burning  a  piece  of  wood,  closely  covered  with  sand,  in  a  cru- 
cible. Carbon  enters  into  the  composition  of  bitumen  and  pit 
coal,  and  of  most  animal  and  some  mineral  substances  ;  and 
it  forms  nearly  the  whole  of  the  solid  basis  of  all  vegetables, 
from  the  most  delicate  flower  to  the  stately  oak.  It  is  also  a 
component  part  of  sugar,  and  of  all  kinds  of  wax,  oils,  gums, 
and  resins.  It  combines  with  iron  in  various  proportions,  and 
the  results  are  cast-iron  and  steel.  Black  lead  is  a  composi- 
tion of  nine  parts  of  carbon  to  one  of  iron  ;  and  is  therefore 
called  a  carburet  of  iron.  Carbon  is  indestructible  by  age, 
and  preserves  its  identity  in  all  the  combinations  into  which 
it  enters.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  a  combination  of  carbon  and 
oxygen.  It  is  found  in  a  state  of  combination  with  lime,  form- 
ing limestone,  marble,  and  chalk ;  and  may  be  separated  from 
them  by  heat,  or  by  means  of  the  mineral  acids.  This  gas, 
which  was  formerly  called  ^a:^e^  air,  is  found  in  mines,  caves, 
the  bottoms  of  wells,  wine  cellars,  brewers'  vats,  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  limekilns.  It  is  known  to  miners  by  the 
name  of  the  choke-damp^  and  too  frequently  runs  on  deadly 
errands.  It  extinguishes  flame  and  animal  life.  It  is  the 
heaviest  of  all  the  gases  ;  being  nearly  twice  the  weight  of  com- 

ingenuity  by  the  invention  of  his  safety  lamp— v^'hich  is  made  of  wire  gauze, 
and  has  this  particular  property,  that  the  miner  may  move  about  with  it, 
and  even  work  by  its  Hghl  in  the  midst  of  those  explosive  mixtures  which 
have  so  often  proved  fatal,  when  entered  with  a  common  lamp  or  candle. 
But  the  want  of  accuracy  in  some  of  the  manufacturers  of  the  gauze  with 
which  the  instrument  is  constructed — and  the  carelessness  of  the  miners 
in  using  it — have  frequently  prevented  its  beneficial  eifects  from  being 
realized.  For  a  particular  description  of  this  lamp,  see  '"  Improvement  ot 
Society,"  Sect.  II,  V,  and  the  Appendix. 


272  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

men  air,  and  twenty  times  the  weight  of  hydrogen.  It  may 
therefore  be  poured  from  one  vessel  to  another;  and  a  lighted 
taper  is  instantly  extinguished  by  pouring  a  small  quantity  of 
it  over  the  flame.  It  is  a  powerful  cmliseptlc^  or  preserver  from 
putrefaction.  Meat  which  has  been  sealed  up  in  it,  (says  Mr. 
Parkes,)  has  been  known  to  have  preserved  its  texture  and  ap- 
pearance for  more  than  twenty  years.  There  is  no  substance 
of  more  importance  in  civilized  life  than  the  different  forms  of 
carbon.  "  In  nature,"  says  Sir  H.  Davy,  "  this  element  is  con- 
stantly active  in  an  important  series  of  operations.  It  is  evolved 
in  fermentation  and  combustion,  in  carbonic  acid  ;  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  oxygen  in  the  organs  of  plants  ;  it  is  a  principal 
element  in  animal  structures ;  and  is  found  in  different  forms 
in  almost  all  the  products  of  organized  beings." 

Chlorine  is  a  gas  of  a  greenish  colour.  It  is  fatal  to  ani- 
mal life,  if  breathed  undiluted  with  common  air,  but  it  does 
not,  like  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  extinguish  combus- 
tion. A  candle  burns  in  it  with  a  red  flame;  and  it  possesses 
the  remarkable  property  of  setting  fire  to  many  of  the  metals, 
even  at  the  common  temperature  of  the  air,  when  introduced 
into  it  beaten  out  into  thin  leaves  or  reduced  to  filings — such 
as  copper,  tin,  arsenic,  zinc,  and  antimony.  It  has  the  property 
of  destroying  all  vegetable  colours.  If  a  vegetable  hlue,  for 
instance,  be  exposed  to  its  action,  the  colour  is  not  changed 
to  a  red,  as  it  would  be  by  an  acid, — nor  to  green,  as  it  would 
be  by  an  alkali, — but  it  is  totally  destroyed.  On  this  account 
chlorine  has  been  introduced  as  a  powerful  agent  in  the  art  of 
bleaching ;  for  if  unbleached  linens  be  properly  exposed  to  its 
action,  the  matter  which  gives  them  their  gray  colour  is  de- 
stroyed. But  if  applied  in  its  pure  state,  and  not  sufficiently 
diluted,  it  invariably  destroys  the  strength  and  texture  of  the 
linens.  The  specific  gravity  of  this  gas,  when  free  from  watery 
vapour  is  2*5,  common  air  being  1- ;  and  one  hundred  cubic 
inches  of  it  weigh  about  seventy-seven  grains. 

Iodine  is  the  name  of  an  undecompounded  principle  or 
element  in  chemistry.  It  remained  undiscovered  till  1812, 
when  a  manufacturer  of  saltpetre,  in  Paris,  detected  it  in  the 
ashes  of  sea  weeds.  It  resembles  chlorine  in  some  of  its 
properties,  and  is  derived  from  a  source  which  also  supplies 
chlorine,  both  of  them  being  of  marine  origin.  It  may  be 
procured  by  drying  and  powdering  common  sea  weed,  and 
heating  it  with  sulphuric  acid.  A  violet-coloured  vapour  rises, 
which,  if  received  in  a  cool  vessel,  will  condense  on  its  sides, 
and  will  form  scaly  crystals  of  a  somewhat  metallic  lustre. 
These  crystals  are  the  substance  in  question ;  and  from  the 


CHEMISTRY. 


173 


violet  colour  of  its  vapour  it  is  called  iodine.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  3'08 4 ;  it  melts  at  a  heat  a  little  above  that  of  boil- 
ing water,  at  the  temperature  of  350°  it  boils  and  evaporates 
in  a  violet-coloured  vapour.  It  stains  the  fingers  yellow,  and 
consumes  the  cork  of  the  phial  in  which  it  is  contained.  Its 
smell  is  disagreeable,  its  taste  acrid,  it  destroys  vegetable  co- 
lours, and  it  possesses  poisonous  properties.  It  has  the  pro- 
perty of  forming  a  beautiful  blue  colour,  when  mixed  with  a 
litde  powdered  starch,  and  diffused  through  cold  water ;  and 
hence  iodine  and  starch  are  used  by  chemists  as  mutual  tests 
of  each  other's  presence,  even  in  the  most  minute  quantity. 

Sulphur  is  a  substance  which  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  ages.  It  was  used  by  the  ancients  in  medicine,  and 
its  fumes  have,  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  been  em- 
ployed in  bleaching  wool.  Jt  is  found  combined  with  many 
mineral  substances,  as  arsenic,  antimony,  copper,  and  most  of 
the  metallic  ores.  It  exists  in  many  mineral  waters,  and  in 
combination  with  vegetable  and  animal  matters,  but  is  most 
abundant  in  volcanic  countries,  particularly  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Vesuvius,  Etna,  and  Hecla  in  Iceland.  It  is  a  solid, 
opake,  combustible  substance,  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  very 
brittle,  and  almost  without  taste  or  smell.  Its  specific  guiviiy 
is  nearly  twice  that  of  water :  it  is  a  non-conductor  of  elec- 
tricity, and,  of  course,  becomes  electric  by  friction.  When 
heated  to  the  temperature  of  170°  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer, 
it  rises  up  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  which  is  easily  col- 
lected in  a  proper  vessel,  and  is  named  ihejloivers  of  sulphur. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  may  be  dissolved  in  oils,  in  spirit 
of  wine,  and  in  hydrogen  gas.  When  sulphur  is  heated  to 
the  temperature  of  302°  in  the  open  air,  it  takes  fire  sponta- 
neously and  burns  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  and  emits  a  great 
quantity  of  fumes  of  a  strong  suffocating  odour.  When  heated 
to  the  temperature  of  570°,  it  burns  with  a  bright  white  flame, 
and  emits  a  vast  quantity  of  fumes.  When  these  fumes  are 
collected,  they  are  found  to  consist  entirely  of  sulphuric  acid; 
so  that  sulphur,  by  combustion,  is  converted  into  an  acid.  It 
is  the  base  of  several  compound  substances.  It  unites  with 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  the  alkalies,  the 
metals,  and  some  of  the  earths.  This  substance  is  of  great 
importance  in  medicine,  as  it  is  found  to  penetrate  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  most  minute  vessels,  and  to  impregnate  all 
the  secretions.  It  is  also  used  in  the  arts,  particularly  in 
bleaching  and  dying ;  it  forms  a  very  large  proportion  of  gun- 
pow^der;  and  one  of  its  most  common,  but  not  least  useful 
properties,  is  that  of  its  comhcstibilify,  by  which,  with  the 


274  CHRISTIAxN  PHILOSOPHER. 

help  of  a  tinder-box,  light  is  almost  instantaneously  produced. 
As  this  substance  has  not  yet  been  decomposed,  it  is  considered 
by  chemists,  in  the  mean  time,  as  one  of  the  simple  substances. 
'  Phosphorus  is  another  simple  combustible  substance,  but 
is  never  found  in  a  pure  state  in  nature.  It  is  commonly 
united  to  oxygen  in  the  state  of  phosphoric  acid,  which  is 
found  in  different  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  substances. 
It  was  first  discovered  by  Brandt,  a  chemist  of  Hamburgh,  in 
the  year  1667,  and  afterwards  by  the  Honourable  Mr.  Boyle, 
in  1679.  It  was  formerly  obtained  by  a  disgusting  process; 
but  i£!  now  extracted  from  the  bones  of  animals,  by  burning 
them,  and  then  reducing  them  to  a  fine  powder,  and  afterwards 
pouring  sulphuric  acid  upon  them.  This  substance,  v;hen  pure, 
resembles  bees'  wax,  being  of  a  clear,  transparent,  yellowish  co- 
lour; it  is  insoluble  in  water;  it  may  be  cut  with  a  knife,  or 
twisted  to  pieces  with  the  fingers ;  and  it  is  about  double  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  water.  Its  most  remarkable  property  is  its  very 
strong  attraction  for  oxygen,  from  which  circumstance  it  burns 
spontaneously  in  the  open  air  at  the  temperature  of  43° ;  that 
is,  it  attracts  the  oxygen  gas  from  the  atmosphere,  and  heat 
and  flame  are  produced.  It  gradually  consumes  when  exposed 
to  the  common  temperature  of  air,  emits  a  whitish  smoke,  and 
is  luminous  in  the  dark;  for  this  reason  it  is  kept  in  phials  of 
water ;  and  as  the  heat  of  the  hand  is  sufficient  to  inflame  it, 
it  should  seldom  be  handled  except  under  water.  At  the  tem- 
perature of  99°  it  melts;  it  evaporates  at  219°,  and  boils  at 
554°.  When  heated  to  148°  it  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  a 
very  bright  flame,  and  gives  out  a  large  quantity  of  white 
smoke,  which  is  luminous  in  the  dark ;  at  the  same  time  it 
emits  an  odour,  which  has  some  resemblance  to  that  of  gar- 
lic ;  and  this  smoke,  when  collected,  is  proved  to  be  an  acid. 
It  burns  with  the  greatest  splendour  in  oxygen  gas,  and,  when 
taken  internally,  it  is  found  to  be  poisonous.  If  any  light 
substance,  capable  of  conducting  heat,  be  placed  upon  the  sur- 
face of  boiling  water,  and  a  bit  of  phosphorus  be  laid  upon  it, 
the  heat  of  the  water  will  be  sufficient  to  set  the  phosphorus 
on  fire.  If  we  write  a  few  words  on  paper,  with  a  bit  of 
phosphorus  fixed  in  a  quill,  when  the  writing  is  carried  into  a 
dark  room  it  will  appear  beautifully  luminous.  If  a  piece  of 
phosphorus,  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  be  dropped  into  a  tumbler 
of  hot  water,  and  a  stream  of  oxygen  gas  forced  directly  upon 
it,  it  will  display  the  most  brilliant  combustion  under  water 
that  can  be  imagined.  All  experiments  with  phosphorus,  how- 
ever, require  to  be  performed  with  great  caution.  This  sub- 
stance is  used  in  making  phosphoric  match-bottles,  phospho- 


CHEM!STK%%  27-5 

ric  oil,  phosphoric  tapers,  and  various  phosphoric  fire-works. 
Phosphorizcd  hydrogen  gas  is  produced  by  bits  of  phosphorus 
remaining  some  hours  in  hydrogen  gas.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
that  gas  which  is  often  seen  hovering  on  the  surface  of  burial 
grounds  and  marshes,  known  in  Scotland  by  the  name  of 
spunkie^  and  in  England  by  that  of  wilUcP-the-amsp. 

Some  animals,  as  the  gloiv-worm  and  \hejirc-jiij^  and  fish  in 
a  putrescent  state,  exhibit  phosphorescent  qualities,  M.  Peron 
describes  a  singular  instance  of  this  kind  in  an  animal  which 
he  calls  the  pyrosoma  atlanti.cum^  which  he  observed  in  his 
voyage  from  Europe  to  the  Isle  of  France.  The  darkness  was 
intense  when  it  was  first  discovered  :  and  all  at  once  there 
appeared  at  some  distance,  as  it  were,  a  vast  sheet  o{  phospho- 
rus floating  on  the  waves,  which  occupied  a  great  space  be- 
fore the  vessel.  When  the  vessel  had  passed  through  this 
inflamed  part  of  the  sea,  it  was  found,  that  this  prodigious 
light  was  occasioned  by  an  immense  number  of  small  animals, 
which  swam  at  different  depths,  and  appeared  to  assume  various 
forms.  Those  which  were  deepest  looked  like  great  red-hot 
cannon  balls,  while  those  on  the  surface  resembled  cylinders 
of  red-hot  iron.  Some  of  them  were  caught,  and  were  found 
to  vary  in  size  from  three  to  seven  inches.  All  the  exterior 
surface  of  the  animal  was  bristled  with  thick  oblong  tubercles, 
shining  like  so  many  diamonds ;  and  these  seemed  to  be  the 
principle  seat  of  its  wonderful  phosphorescence. 

Such  is  a  brief  description  of  the  principal  elementary  sub- 
stances, which,  in  a  thousand  diversified  forms,  pervade  the 
system  of  nature,  and  produce  all  that  variety  which  we 
behold  in  the  atmosphere,  the  waters,  the  earth,  and  the  various 
processes  of  the  arts.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  these  sub- 
stances are  compounds,  though  they  have  not  yet  been  decom- 
posed. Yea,  it  is  possible,  and  not  at  all  improbable,  that 
there  are  but  two,  or  at  most  three  elem.entary  substances  in 
nature,  the  various  modifications  of  which  produce  all  the 
beauties  and  sublimities  in  the  universe.  Perhaps  caloric, 
oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  may  ultimately  be  found  to  constitute 
all  the  elementary  principles  of  nature.  Without  prosecuting  this 
subject  further,  I  shall  conclude  this  article  with  a  few  cursory 
reflections,  tending  to  illustrate  its  connexion  with  religion. 

The  remarks  which  1  have  already  thrown  out,  in  reference 
to  natural  philosophy,  will  equally  apply  to  the  science  of 
chemistry;  and  therefore  do  not  require  to  be  repeated.  In 
addition  to  these,  the  following  observations  may  be  stated  : — 

1.  This  science  displays,  in  a  striking  point  of  view,  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  God,  in  producing^  hy  the  most  simple 


276  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

means^  the  most  astonishing  and  henevolent  effects.  All  the 
varied  phenomena  we  perceive  throughout  tne  whole  system 
of  sublunary  nature  are  produced  by  a  combination  of  six  or 
seven  simple  substances  I  formerly  adverted  to  the  infinite 
variety  which  exists  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.*  About  fifty- 
six  thousand  different  species  of  plants  have  already  been  dis- 
covered by  botanists.  All  these,  from  the  humble  shrub  to 
the  cedar  of  Lebanon,  which  adorn  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
in  every  clime,  with  such  a  diversity  of  forms,  shades,  and 
colours,  are  the  result  of  the  combinations  of  "four  or  five 
natural  substances — caloric,  light,  Nvater,  air,  and  carbon." 
"When  we  consider,"  says  Mr.  Parkes,  "  that  themany  thou- 
sand tribes  of  vegetables  are  not  only  all  formed  from  a  few 
simple  substances,  but  that  they  all  enjoy  the  same  sun,  vege- 
tate in  the  same  medium,  and  are  supplied  with  the  same  nu- 
triment, we  cannot  but  be  struck  with  the  rich  economy  of 
nature,  and  are  almost  induced  to  doubt  the  evidence  of  those 
senses  with  which  the  God  of  nature  has  furnished  us.  That 
it  should  be  possible  so  to  modify  and  intermingle  a  few  simple 
substances,  and  thence  produce  all  the  variety  of  form,  colour, 
odour,  &c.,  which  is  observable  in  the  different  families  of 
vegetables,  is  a  phenomenon  too  astonishing  for  our  compre- 
hension. Nothing  short  of  Omnipotence  could  have  pro- 
vided such  a  paradise  for  man."  | 

"  Soft  roll  your  incense,  herbs,  and  fruits,  and  flowers. 

In  mingled  clouds,  to  Him,  whose  sun  exalts, 

Whose  breath  perfumes  you,  and  whose  pencil  paints." — Thomson. 

What  an  admirable  view  is  here  opened  up  of  the  economy  of 
Divine  wisdom,  and  of  the  beneficent  care  which  has  been  taken 
to  secure  the  comfort  and  happiness  of  every  living  creature ; 
and  how  ungrateful  a  disposition  must  it  indicate  in  rational  be- 
ings to  overlook  such  benevolent  arrangements !  It  is  highly 
probable,  that,  in  all  the  other  worlds  dispersed  throughout  the 
universe,  an  infinite  diversity  of  scenery  exists,  and  that  no  one 
globe  or  system  exactly  resembles  another ;  and  yet  it  is  proba- 
ble, that  the  primary  elements  of  matter,  or  the  few  simple  sub- 
stances of  which  our  world  is  composed,  may  be  of  the  same 
nature  as  those  which  form  the  constituent  parts  of  every  other 
.system;  and  may  give  birth  to  all  the  variety  which  exists 
throughout  the  wide  extent  of  creation,  and  to  all  the  changes 
and  revolutions  through  which  the  different  systems  may  pass, 
during  every  period  of  infinite  duration. 

*  See  pp.  78,  80  t  Chemical  Catechism,  chap,  ix. 


CHEMISTRY.  277 

2.  From  this  science  we  have  every  reason  to  conclude  that 
matter  is  indestructible.  In  the  various  changes  that  take  place 
in  material  substances,  the  particles  of  matter  are  not  destroyed, 
but  only  assume  new  forms,  and  enter  into  new  combinations. 
When  a  piece  of  wood,  for  example,  is  burned  to  ashes,  none  of 
its  principles  are  destroyed  ;  the  elementary  substances  of  which 
it  was  composed  are  only  separated  from  one  another,  and  form- 
ed into  new  compounds.  Carbon,  as  already  stated,  appears  to 
be  indestructible  by  age,  and  to  preserve  its  essential  properties, 
in  every  mode  of  its  existence.  That  Being,  indeed,  who  created 
matter  at  first,  may  reduce  it  to  nothing  when  he  pleases ;  but  it 
is  highly  improbable  that  his  power  will  ever  be  interposed  to 
produce  this  effect;  or  that  any  particle  of  matter  which  now 
exists,  will  ever  be  annihilated,  into  whatever  new  or  varied 
combinations  it  may  enter.  When  any  particular  world,  or  as- 
semblage of  material  existence,  has  remained  in  its  original  state 
for  a  certain  period  of  duration,  and  accomplished  all  the  ends  it 
was  intended  to  subserve  in  that  state,  the  materials  of  which  it 
is  composed  will,  in  all  probability,  be  employed  for  erecting  a 
new  system,  and  establishing  a  new  series  of  events,  in  which 
new  scenes,  and  new  beauties  and  sublimities  will  arise  from 
new  and  varied  combinations.  For  the  Creator  does  nothing  in 
vain.  But  to  annihilate,  and  again  to  create,  would  be  operating 
in  vain;  and  we  uniformly  find,  that  in  all  the  arrangements  of 
Deity,  in  the  present  state  of  things,  nature  is  frugal  and  eco- 
nomical in  all  her  proceedings ;  so  that  there  is  no  process, 
when  thoroughly  investigated,  that  appears  unnecessary  or 
superfluous. 

From  the  fact,  that  matter  appears  to  be  indestructible,  we 
may  learn,  that  the  Creator  may,  with  the  self-same  materials 
which  now  exist  around  us,  new-model  and  arrange  the  globe 
we  inhabit,  after  the  general  conflagration,  so  as  to  make  a  more 
glorious  world  to  arise  out  of  its  ashes;  purified  from  those 
physical  evils  which  now  exist;  and  fitted  for  the  accommoda- 
tion either  of  renovated  men,  or  of  other  pure  intelligences 
From  the  same  fact,  combined  with  the  consideration  of  the  in- 
finite diversity  of  effects  which  the  simple  substances  of  nature 
are  capable  of  producing,  we  maybe  enabled  to  form  a  concep- 
tion of  the  ease  with  which  the  Creator  may  new-model  our 
bodies,  after  they  have  been  dissolved  in  the  dust;  and  how, 
from  the  same  original  atoms,  he  may  construct  and  adorn  tliem 
with  more  glorious  forms,  and  more  delightful  and  exquisite 
senses  than  they  now  possess. 

In  short,  the  rapid  progress  which  chemical  science  is  now 
making,  promises,  ere  long,  to  introduce  improvements  among. 

24 


278  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

the  human  race,  which  will  expand  iheir  views  of  the  agency  of 
God,  counteract  many  physical  evils,  and  promote,  to  an  extent 
which  has  never  yet  been  experienced,  their  social  and  domestic 
enjoyment.  The  late  discoveries  of  chemistry  tend  to  convince 
us,  that  the  properties  and  powers  of  natural  substances  are 
only  beginning  to  be  discovered.  Who  could  have  imagined,  a 
century  ago,  that  an  invisible  substance  is  contained  in  a  piece 
of  coal,  capable  of  producing  the  most  beautiful  and  splendid 
illumination — that  this  substance  may  be  conveyed,  in  a  few 
moments,  through  pipes  of  several  miles  in  length — and  that  a 
city,  containing  several  hundred  thousands  of  inhabitants,  may 
be  instantly  lighted  up  by  it,  without  the  aid  of  either  wax,  oil, 
or  tallow  ?  Who  could  have  imagined  that  one  of  the  ingredi- 
ents  of  the  air  we  breathe  is  the  principle  of  combustion — that 
a  rod  of  iron  may  be  made  to  burn  in  it  with  a  brilliancy  that 
dazzles  the  eyes — that  a  piece  of  charcoal  may  be  made  to  burn 
with  a  white  and  splendid  light,  which  is  inferior  only  to 
the  solar  rays — and  that  the  diamond  is  nothing  more  than  car- 
bon in  a  crystallized  state,  and  differs  only  in  a  slight  degree 
from  a  bit  of  common  charcoal  ?  Who  could  have  surmised, 
that  a  substance  would  be  discovered,  of  such  a  degree  of  levity, 
as  would  have  power  sufficient  to  buoy  up  a  number  of  men 
to  the  upper  parts  of  the  atmosphere,  and  enable  them  to  swim, 
in  safety,  above  the  region  of  the  clouds }  These  are  only  spe- 
cimens of  still  more  brilliant  discoveries  which  will,  doubtless, 
be  brought  to  light  by  the  researches  of  future  generations.  We 
have  reason  to  believe,  that  the  investigations  of  this  science 
will,  in  due  time,  enable  us  to  counteract  most  of  the  diseases 
incident  to  the  human  frame;  and  to  prevent  many  of  those 
fatal  accidents  to  which  mankind  are  now  exposed.  Davy's 
safety-lamp  has  already  preserved  many  individuals  from  de- 
struction, when  working  in  coal  mines  ;  and  thousands,  in  after 
ages,  will  be  indebted  to  this  discovery,  for  security  from  the 
dreadful  explosions  of  hydrogen  gas.  And  we  trust  that  the 
period  is  not  far  distant,  when  specific  antidotes  to  the  diseases 
peculiar  to  the  different  trades  and  occupations  in  which  man- 
kind are  employed  will  be  discovered  ;  and  the  health  and 
vigour  of  the  mass  of  society  be  preserved  unimpaired,  amidst 
all  the  processes  in  which  they  may  be  engaged. 

In  fine,  the  rapid  progress  of  chemical  discovery  carries 
forward  our  views  to  a  period,  when  man,  having  thoroughly 
explored  the  powers  of  nature,  and  subjected  them,  in  some 
measure,  to  his  control,  will  be  enabled  to  ward  off  most  of 
those  physical  evils  with  which  he  is  now  annoyed,  and  to  raise 
himself,  in  some  degree,  to  the  dignity  and  happiness  he  enjoyed 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  279 

before  moral  evil  had  shed  its  baleful  influence  on  our  terres- 
trial system.  Such  a  period  corresponds  to  many  of  the  descrip- 
tions contained  in  the  sacred  oracles  of  the  millenial  state  of 
the  church  ;  when  social,  domestic,  moral,  and  intellectual  im- 
provement shall  be  carried  to  the  utmost  perfection  which  our 
sublunary  station  will  permit:  when  wars  shall  cease;  when 
the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  shall  cover  the  earth  ;  when  every 
man  shall  sit  under  his  vine  and  fig-tree,  without  being  exposed 
to  the  least  alarm  •,  and  when  there  shall  be  nothing  to  hurt 
nor  destroy  throughout  the  church  of  the  living  God.  And 
therefore,  we  ought  to  consider  the  various  discoveries  and  im- 
provements now  going  forward  in  this,  and  other  departments 
of  science,  as  preparing  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  this 
long-expected  and  auspicious  era. 

ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  general  object  of  both  these  sciences  is,  to  investigate 
and  describe  the  structure  and  economy  of  the  animal  frame. — 
JJnatomy  dissects  dead  bodies.  Physiology  investigates  the 
functions  of  those  that  are  living.  The  former  examines  the 
fluids,  muscles,  viscera,  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the  human 
body,  in  a  state  of  rest ;  the  latter  considers  them  in  a  state 
of  aclion. 

The  parts  of  the  human  body  have  been  distinguished  into 
two  difTerent  kinds — solids  and  fluids.  The  solid  parts  are, 
bones,  cartilages,  ligaments,  muscles,  tendons,  memhranes, 
nerves,  arteries,  veins,  hair,  nails,  and  ducts,  or  fine  tubular 
vessels  of  various  kinds.  Of  these  solid  parts,  the  following 
compound  organs  consist :  the  brain  and  cerebellum,  the  lungs, 
the  heart,  the  stomach,  the  liver,  the  spleen,  the  pancreas,  the 
glands,  the  kidneys,  the  intestines,  the  mesentery,  the  larynx,s.nd. 
the  organs  of  sense — the  eyes,  ears,  nose,  and  tongue.  The 
fluid  parts  are,  the  saliva,or  spittle, phlegm,  serum,  the  chyle, 
blood,  bile,  milk,  lymph,  urine,  the  pancreatic  juice,  and  the 
aqueous  humour  of  the  eyes.  The  human  body  is  divided  into 
three  great  cavities — the  head;  the  thorax,  or  breast ;  and  the 
abdomen,  or  belly.  The  head  is  formed  of  the  bones  of  the 
cranium,  and  encloses  the  brain  and  cerebellum.  The  thorax 
is  composed  of  the  vertebrae  of  the  back,  the  sternum,  and  true 
ribs;  and  contains  the  heart,  the  pericardium,  the  breasts,  and 
the  huig;s.  The  abdomen  is  separated  from  the  thorax  by 
means  of  the  diaphragm^  which  is  a  fleshy  and  membranous 
substance,  composed  "for  the  most  part  of  muscular  fibres. 
This  cavity  is  formed  by  the  lumbar  vertebrae,  the  os  sacrum, 


280  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

the  ossa  innominata,  the  false  ribs,  the  peritonaeum,  and  a  va- 
riety of  muscles.  It  encloses  the  stomach,  intestines,  omen- 
tum, or  caul,  the  liver,  pancreas,  spleen,  kidneys,  and  urinary 
bladder.  Without  attempting  any  technical  description  of  tliese 
different  parts,  which  could  convey  no  accurate  ideas  to  a 
general  reader,  I  shall  merely  state  two  or  three  facts  in  rela- 
tion to  the  system  of  bones,  muscles,  and  blood-vessels,  as 
specimens  of  the  wonderful  structure  of  our  bodily  frame. 

The  BONES  may  be  regarded  as  the  propvvork  or  basis  on 
which  the  human  body  is  constructed.  They  bear  the  same 
relation  to  the  animal  system,  as  the  woodwork  to  a  building. 
They  give  shape  and  firmness  to  the  body,  they  support  its 
various  parts,  and  prevent  it  from  sinking  by  its  own  weight ; 
they  serve  as  levers  for  the  muscles  to  act  upon,  and  to  defend 
the  brain,  the  heart,  the  lungs,  and  other  vital  parts,  from  ex- 
ternal injury.  Of  the  bones,  some  are  liollow^  and  filled  with 
marrow  ;  others  are  solid  throughout ;  some  are  very  small ; 
others  very  large  ;  some  are  round,  and  others  Jlat ;  some 
are  plane,  and  others  convex,  or  concave;  and  all  these  forms 
are  requisite  for  the  situations  they  occupy,  and  the  respective 
functions  they  have  to  perform.  The  spine,  or  back-bone,  con- 
sists of  twenty-four  vertebrae,  or  small  bones,  connected  to- 
gether by  cartilages,  articulations,  and  ligaments  ;  of  which 
seven  belong  to  the  neck,  twelve  to  the  back,  and  five  to  the 
loins.  In  the  centre  of  each  vertebra  there  is  a  hole  for  the 
lodgement  and  continuation  of  the  spinal  marrow,  which  ex- 
tends from  the  brain  to  the  rump.  From  these  vertebrae  the 
arched  bones  called  ribs  proceed;  and  seven  of  them  join  the 
breast-bone  on  each  side,  where  they  terminate  in  cartilages,  and 
form  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  or  chest.  The  five  lower  ribs,  with 
a  number  of  muscles,  form  the  cavity  of  the  abdomen,  as  above . 
stated.  The  spine  is  one  of  the  most  admirable  mechanical 
contrivances  in  the  human  frame.  Had  it  consisted  of  only 
three  or  four  bones,  or  had  the  holes  in  each  bone  not  exactly 
corresponded,  and  fitted  into  each  other,  the  spinal  marrow 
would  have  been  bruised,  and  life  endangered  at  every  bend- 
ing of  the  body.  The  skull  is  composed  of  ten  bones,  and 
about  fifty-one  are  reckoned  to  belong  to  the  face,  the  orbits 
of  the  eyes,  and  the  jaws  in  which  the  teeth  are  fixed.  There 
are  seldom  more  than  sixteen  teeth  in  each  jaw,  or  thirty-two 
in  all.  The  number  of  bones  in  a  human  body  is  generally  esti- 
mated at  about  two  hundred  and  forty-five;  of  which  there  are 
reckoned,  in  the  skull,  head,  and  face,  sixty-one ;  in  the  trunk, 
sixty-four ;  in  the  arms  and  hands,  sixty  ;  and  in  the  legs  and 
feet,  sixty.    The  bones  are  provided  with  ligaments,  or  hinges, 


ANATOMY  AxND  PHYSIOLOGY.  281 

which  bind  and  fasten  them  together,  and  prevent  them  from 
being  displaced  by  any  violent  motion  ;  and,  that  the  ligaments 
may  work  smoothly  into  one  another,  the  joints  are  sepa- 
rated by  cartilages^  or  gristles,  and  provided  with  a  gland 
for  the  secretion  of  oil,  or  mucus^  which  is  constantly  exuding 
into  the  joints;  so  that  every  requisite  is  provided  by  our  be- 
nevolent Creator,  to  prevent  pain,  and  to  promote  facility  of 
motion.  "  In  considering  the  joints,"  says  Dr.  Paley,  "  there 
is  nothing,  perhaps,  which  ought  to  move  our  gratitude  more 
than  the  reflection,  hoio  well  they  wear.  A  limb  shall  swing 
upon  its  hinge,  or  play  in  its  socket,  many  hundred  times  in 
an  hour,  for  sixty  years  together,  without  diminution  of  agility; 
which  is  a  long  time  for  any  thing  to  last,  for  any  thing  so 
much  worked  as  the  joints  are." 

The  MUSCULAR  SYSTEM. — A  muscU  is  a  bundle  of  fleshy, 
and  sometimes  of  tendinous  fibres.  The  fleshy  fibres  com- 
pose the  body  of  the  muscles ;  and  the  tendinous  fibres  the 
extremities.  Some  muscles  are  long  and  round  ;  some  plain 
and  circular;  some  have  spiral^  and  some  have  straight  fibres. 
Some  are  double,  having  a  tendon  running  through  the  body 
from  head  to  tail ;  some  have  two  or  more  tendinous  branches 
running  through,  with  various  rows  and  orders  of  fibres.  All 
these,  and  several  other  varieties,  are  essentially  requisite  for 
the  respective  offices  they  have  to  perform  in  the  animal  sys- 
tem. The  muscles  consthute  the  fleshy  part  of  the  human 
body,  and  give  it  that  varied  and  beautiful  form  we  observe 
over  all  its  surface.  But  their  principal  design  is  to  serve  as 
the  organs  of  motion.  They  are  inserted,  by  strong  tendi- 
nous extremities,  into  the  different  bones  of  which  the  skeleton 
is  composed  ;  and,  by  their  contraction  and  distention,  give 
rise  to  all  the  movements  of  the  body.  The  muscles,  there- 
fore, may  be  considered  as  so  many  cords  attached  to  the 
bo-nes ;  and  the  author  of  nature  has  fixed  them  according  to 
the  most  perfect  principles  of  mechanism,  so  as  to  produce 
the  fittest  motions  in  the  parts  for  the  movements  of  which 
they  are  intended. 

One  of  the  most  wonderful  properties  of  the  muscles  is,  the 
extraordinary  force  they  exert^  although  they  are  composed 
of  such  slender  threads,  or  fibres.  The  following  facts  in  re- 
lation to  this  point  are  demonstrated  by  the  celebrated  Borelli, 
in  his  work  "  De  motu  animalium.'^''  When  a  man  lifts  up 
with  his  teeth  a  weight  of  two  hundred  pounds  with  a  rope 
fastened  to  the  jaw-teeth,  the  muscles  named  temporalis  and 
masseter^  with  which  people  chew,  and  which  perform  this 
work,  exert  a  force  of  above  fifteen  thousand  pounds  weight. 
■24* 


282  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

If  any  one  hanging  his  arm  directly  downwards  lifts  a  weight 
of  twenty  pounds,  with  the  third  or  last  joint  of  his  thumb, 
the  muscle  which  bends  the  thumb  and  bears  that  weiglit  ex- 
erts a  force  of  about  ihree  thousand  pounds.  When  a  man, 
standing  upon  his  feet,  leaps  or  springs  upwards  to  the  height 
of  two  feet,  if  the  weight  of  such  a  man  be  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds,  the  muscles  employed  in  that  action  will  exert  a 
force  two  thousand  times  greater ;  that  is  to  say,  a  force  of 
about  three  hundred  thousand  'pounds.  The  hearty  at  each 
pulse  or  contraction,  by  which  it  protrudes  the  blood  out  of 
the  arteries  into  the  veins,  exerts  a  force  of  above  a  hundred 
thousand  pounds.  Who  can  contemplate  this  amazing  strength 
of  the  muscular  system,  without  admiration  of  the  power  and 
wisdom  of  the  Creator,  who  has  endued  a  bundle  of  threads, 
each  of  them  smaller  than  a  hair,  with  such  an  astonishing 
degree  of  mechanical  force  !  There  have  been  reckoned  about 
four  hundred  and  forty-six  muscles  in  the  human  body,  which 
have  been  dissected  and  distinctly  described  ;  every  one  of 
which  is  essential  to  the  performance  of  some  one  motion  or 
other,  which  contributes  to  our  ease  and  enjoyment ;  and,  in 
most  instances,  a  great  number  of  them  is  required  to  perform 
their  different  functions  at  the  same  time.  It  has  been  calcu- 
lated, that  about  a  hundred  muscles  are  employed  every  time 
we  breathe.  "Breathing  with  ease,"  says  Dr.  Paley,  "is  a 
blessing  of  every  moment;  yet,  of  all  others,  it  is  that  which 
we  possess  with  the  least  consciousness.  A  man  in  an  asthma 
is  the  only  man  who  knows  how  to  estimate  it." 

The  HEART  and  blood-vessels. — The  heart  is  a  hollow 
muscular  organ,  of  a  conical  shape,  and  consists  of  four  dis- 
tinct cavities.  The  two  largest  are  called  ventricles,  and  the 
two  smallest  auricles.  The  ventricles  send  out  the  blood  to  the 
arteries  •,  the  auricles  receive  it  from  the  veins.  The  heart  is 
enclosed  in  the  pericardium,  a  membranous  bag,  which  con- 
tains a  quantity  of  water,  or  lymph.  This  water  lubricates  the 
heart,  and  facilitates  all  its  motions.  The  heart  is  the  general 
reservoir  of  the  blood.  When  the  heart  contracts,  the  blood  is 
propelled  from  the  right  ventricle  into  the  lungs,  through  the 
pulmonary  arteries,  which,  like  all  the  other  arteries,  are  fur- 
nished with  valves  that  play  easily  forward,  but  admit  not  the 
blood  to  return  toward  the  heart.  The  blood,  after  circulating 
through  the  lungs,  and  having  there  been  revivified  by  coming 
in  contact  with  the  air,  and  imbibing  a  portion  of  its  oxygen, 
returns  into  the  left  auricle  of  the  heart,  by  the  pulmonary 
vein.  At  the  same  instant,  the  left  ventricle  drives  the  blood 
into  the  aorta,  a  large  artery  which  sends  off  branches  to 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  283 

supply  the  head  and  arms.     Another  large  branch  of  the  aorta 
descends   along   the   mside  of  the   back-bone,  and   detaches 
numerous  ramifications  to  nourish  the   bowels    and  inferior 
extremities.       After    serving    the    most    remote    extremities 
of  the  body,  the  arteries  are  converted  into  veins,  which,  in 
their  return  to  the  heart,  gradually  unite  into  larger  branches, 
till  the  whole  terminate  in  one  great  trunk,  called   the  vena 
cava,   which  discharges  itself  into  the  right   auricle   of  the 
heart,   and    completes    the    circulation.      Each  ventricle  of 
the  heart  is    reckoned  to  contain  about  one  ounce,  or  two 
table-spoonfuls  of  blood.      The  heart  contracts  4000   times 
every  hour ;  and,  consequently,  there  passes  through  it  250 
pounds  of  blood  in  one  hour.     And  if  the  mass  of  blood  in  a 
human  body  be  reckoned  at  an  average  of  twenty-five  pounds, 
it  will  follow,  that  the  whole  mass  of  blood  passes  through  the 
heart,  and  consequently  through  the  thousands  of  ramifications 
of  the  veins  and  arteries,  ten  times  every  hour,  or  about  once 
every  six  minutes.     We  may  acquire  a  rude  idea  of  the  force 
"with  which  the  blood  is  impelled  from  the  heart,  by  consider- 
ing the  velocity  with  which  water  issues  from  a  syringe,  or 
from  the  pipe  of  a  fire-engine.     Could  we  behold  these  rapid 
motions  incessantly  going  on  within  us,  it  would  overpower 
our  minds  with  astonishment,  and  even  with  terror.  We  should 
be  apt  to  feel  alarmed  on  making  the  smallest  exertion,  lest  the 
parts  of  this  delicate  machine  should  be  broken  or  deranged, 
and   its  functions  interrupted.      The  arteries  into  which  the 
blood  is  forced,  branch  in  every  direction  through  the  body, 
like  the  roots  and  branches  of  a  tree ;  running  through  the 
substance  of  the  bones,  and  every  part  of  the  animal  frame,  till 
they  are  lost  in  such  fine  tubes  as  to  be  Avholly  invisible.     In 
the  parts  where  the  arteries  are  lost  to  the  sight,  the  veins  take 
their  rise ;  and  in  their  commencement  are  also  imperceptible. 
Respiration. — The  organs  of   respiration  are  the  lungs. 
They  are   divided  into  five  lobes ;  three  of  which  lie   on  the 
right,  and  two  on  the  left  side  of  the  thorax.     The  substance 
of  the   lungs  is  chiefly  composed  of  infinite   ramifications  of 
the    trachea,  or  wind-pipe,  which,  after  gradually  becoming 
more  and  more  minute,  terminate  in  little  cells,  or  vesicles, 
which  have  a  free  communication  with  one  another.     At  each 
inspiration,  these  pipes  and  cells  are  filled  with  air,  which  is 
again  discharged  by  expiration.     In  this  manner,  a  circulation 
of  air,  which  is  necessary  to  the  existence  of  men  and  other 
animals,  is  constantly  kept  up  as  long  as  life  remains.     The 
air-cells  of  the  lungs  open  into  the  wind-pipe,  by  which  they 
communicate  with   the  external  atmosphere.     The  whole  in- 


284  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

ternal  structure  of  the  lungs  is  lined  by  a  transparent  mem- 
brane, estimated  at  only  the  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in 
thickness ;  but  whose  surface,  from  its  various  convolutions, 
measures  fifteen  square  feet,  which  is  equal  to  the  external 
surface  of  the  body.  On  this  thin  and  extensive  membrane 
innumerable  veins  and  arteries  are  distributed,  some  of  them 
finer  than  hairs  ;  and  through  these  vessels  all  the  blood  of 
the  system  is  successively  propelled,  by  a  most  curious  and 
admirable  mechanism.  It  has  been  computed,  that  the  lungs, 
on  an  average,  contain  about  280  cubic  inches,  or  about  five 
English  quarts  of  air.  At  each  inspiration,  about  forty  cubic 
inches  of  air  are  received  into  the  lungs,  and  the  same  quan- 
tity discharged  at  each  expiration.  On  the  supposition,  that 
twenty  respirations  take  place  in  a  minute,  it  will  follow,  that, 
in  one  minute,  we  inhale  800  cubic  inches;  in  an  hour, 
48,000 ;  and  in  a  day,  one  million  one  hundred  and  fifty-two 
thousand  cubic  inches — a  quantity  which  would  fill  seventy- 
seven  wine  hogsheads,  and  would  weigh  fifty-three  pounds 
Troy.  By  means  of  this  function,  a  vast  body  of  air  is  daily 
brought  into  contact  with  the  mass  of  blood,  and  communi- 
cates to  it  its  vivifying  influence ;  and  therefore  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  health,  that  the  air,  of  which  we  breathe 
so  considerable  a  quantity,  should  be  pure,  and  uncontami- 
nated  with  noxious  effluvia. 

hi  respiration  the  air  meets  the  blood  in  the  lungs,  and  part 
of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  is  absorbed  by  it,  and  im- 
parts to  it  its  red  colour.  Part  of  the  oxygen  is  also  converted 
into  carbonic  acid  by  combining  with  carbon — or  charcoal — 
in  the  lungs.  In  every  instance  air  which  has  been  respired 
loses  a  part  of  its  oxygen  ;  the  quantity  varies  at  different 
times,  according  to  the  operation  of  certain  external  agents. 
It  is  reckoned  that,  upon  an  average,  a  man,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  consumes  45,000  cubic  inches,  or  15,500 
grains  of  oxygen,  in  twenty-four  hours.  A  quantity  of  car- 
bonic acid  is  at  the  same  time  produced,  which  is  generally 
somewhat  less  than  the  oxygen  consumed,  and  may  be  reck- 
oned at  40,000  cubic  inches  in  24  hours.  It  has  been  found 
that,  in  the  human  species,  different  individuals  consume  dif- 
ferent quantities  of  oxygen,  and  of  course  return  different 
quantities  of  carbonic  acid.  The  breath  expired  has  been 
shown  to  contain  from  six  to  eight  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  inspired  is  some- 
times returned  in  full  volume,  and  sometimes  is  partially  re- 
tained and  disappears.  On  the  whole,  as  respiration  is  one 
of  the  most  important  functions  of  animal  life,  on  which  our 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  285 

very  existence  depends,  so  we  may  plainly  perceive,  from  the 
above  and  other  circumstances,  with  what  a  variety  of  other 
functions  it  is  connected,  and  on  what  a  variety  of  minute  and 
invisible  processes  its  operations  depend. 

Digestion — This  process  is  performed  by  the  stomach., 
which  is  a  membranous  and  muscular  bag,  furnished  with  two 
orifices.  By  the  one,  it  has  a  communication  with  the  gullet, 
and  by  the  other,  with  the  bowels.  The  food,  after  being 
moistened  by  the  saliva,  is  received  into  the  stomach,  where  it 
is  still  further  diluted  by  the  gastric  juice.,  which  has  tiie 
power  of  dissolving  every  kind  of  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stance. Part  of  it  is  afterwards  absorbed  by  the  lymphatic 
and  lacteal  vessels,  and  carried  into  the  circulating  system, 
and  converted  into  blood  for  supplying  that  nourishment  which 
the  perpertual  waste  of  our  bodies  demands. 

Perspiration  is  the  evacuation  of  the  juices  of  the  body 
through  the  pores  of  the  skin.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
there  are  above  ih?-ee  hundred  thousand  millions  of  pores  in 
the  glands  of  the  skin  which  covers  the  body  of  a  middle- 
sized  man.  Through  these  pores  more  than  one-half  of  what 
we  eat  and  drink  passes  off  by  insensible  perspiration.  If  we 
consume  eight  pounds  of  food  in  a  day,  five  pounds  of  it  are 
insensibly  discharged  by  perspiration.  During  a  night  of 
seven  hours'  sleep,  we  perspire  about  forty  ounces,  or  two 
pounds  and  a  half.  At  an  average,  we  may  estimate  the  dis- 
charge from  the  surface  of  the  body,  by  sensible  and  insensi- 
ble perspiration,  at  from  half  an  ounce  to  four  ounces  an  hour. 
This  is  a  most  wonderful  part  of  the  animal  economy,  and  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  our  health,  and  even  to  our  very  exist- 
ence. When  partially  obstructed,  colds,  rheumatisms,  fevers, 
and  other  inflammatory  disorders,  are  produced;  and  were  it 
completely  obstructed,  the  vital  functions  would  be  clogged 
and  impeded  in  their  movements,  and  death  would  inevitably 
ensue. 

Sensation. — The  nerves  are  generally  considered  as  the 
instruments  of  sensation.  They  are  soft  white  cords  which 
proceed  from  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  They  come  forth 
originally  by  pairs.  Ten  pairs  proceed  from  the  medullary 
substance  of  the  brain,  which  are  distributed  to  all  pu'ts  of 
the  head  and  neck.  Thirty  pairs  proceed  from  the  spinal  mar- 
row, through  the  vertebrae,  to  all  the  other  parts  of  the  body; 
beino-  forty  in  all.  These  nerves,  the  ramifications  of  which 
are  infinitely  various  and  minute,  are  distributed  upon  th^  heart, 
lungs,  blood-vessels,  bowels,  and  muscles,  till  they  terminate  on 
the  skin  or  external  surface  of  the  body.     Impressions  of  ex- 


286  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

ternal  objects  are  received  by  the  brain  from  the  adjacent 
organs  of  sense,  and  the  brain  exercises  its  commands  over 
the  muscles  and  limbs  by  means  of  the  nerves. 

Without  prosecuting  these  imperfect  descriptions  further,  I 
shall  conclude  this  very  hasty  sketch  with  the  following  sum- 
mary of  the  parts  of  the  body,  in  the  words  of  Bonnet.  ••'  The 
loms^  by  their  joints  and  solidity,  form  the  foundation  of  this 
fine  machine  :  the  ligaments  are  strings  which  unite  the  parts  , 
together  :  the  muscles  dire  fleshy  substances,  which  act  as  elastic 
springs  to  put  them  in  motion  :  the  nerves^  which  are  dispersed 
over  the  whole  body,  connect  all  the  parts  together :  the  arte- 
ries and  re/j/s,  like  rivulets,  convey  life  and  health  throughout: 
the  hearty  placed  in  the  centre,  is  the  focus  where  the  blood 
collects,  or  the  acting  power  by  means  of  w^hich  it  circulates 
and  is  preserved  :  the  lungs^  by  means  of  another  power,  draw 
in  the  external  air,  and  expel  hurtful  vapours  :  i\\e  stomach  and 
intestines  are  the  magazines  where  every  thing  that  is  required 
for  the  daily  supply  is  prepared  :  the  hrain^  that  seat  of  the 
soul,  is  formed  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  dignity  of  its  in- 
habitant :  the  senses^  which  are  the  soul's  ministers,  warn  it 
of  all  that  is  necessary  for  its  pleasure  or  use.*  Adorable 
Creator !  with  what  Avonderful  art  thou  hast  formed  us ! 
Though  the  heavens  did  not  exist  to  proclaim  thy  glory — 
though  there  were  no  created  being  upon  earth  but  myself, 
my  own  body  might  suffice  to  convince  me  that  thou  ^rt  a 
God  of  unlimited  power  and  infinite  goodness." 

This  subject  suggests  a  variety  of  moral  and  religious  re- 
flections, but  the  limits  to  which  I  am  confined  will  permit 
me  to  state  only  the  following: — 1.  The  economy  of  the 
human  frame,  when  seriously  contemplated,  has  a  tendency 
to  excite  admiration  and  astonishment,  and  to  impress  us  loith 
a  sense  of  our  continual  dependence  on  a  superior  Poioer. 
What  an  immense  multiplicity  of  machinery  must  be  in 
action,  to  enable  us  to  breathe,  to  feel,  to  walk  !  Hundreds 
of  bones  of  diversified  forms,  connected  together  by  various 
modes  of  articulation;  hundreds  of  muscles  to  produce  mo- 
tion, each  of  them  acting  in  at  least  ten  different  capacities, 
(see  p.  84);  hundreds  of  tendons  and  ligaments  to  connect 
the  bones  and  muscles  ;  hundreds  of  arteries  to  convey  the 
blood  to  the  remotest  part  of  the  system  ;  hundreds  of  veins 
to  bring  it  back  to  its  reservoir  the  heart;  thousands  of  glands 
secreting  humours  of  various  kinds  from  the  blood;  thousands 
of  lacteal  and  lympiiatic  tubes,  absorbing  and  conveying  nutri- 

*  Contemplation  of  Nature,  vol.  i..  p.  64. 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY.  287 

ment  to  the  circulating  fluid  ;  millions  of  pores,  through 
M'hich  the  perspiration  is  continually  issuing;  an  infinity  of 
ramifications  of  nerves,  diffusing  sensation  throughout  all  the 
parts  of  this  exquisite  machine ;  and  the  heart  at  every  pulsa- 
tion exerting  a  force  of  a  hundred  thousand  pounds,  in  order 
to  preserve  all  this  complicated  machinery  in  constant  opera- 
tion !  The  whole  of  this  vast  system  of  mechanism  must 
be  in  action  before  we  can  walk  across  our  apartments !  We 
admire  the  operation  of  a  steam-engine,  and  the  force  it 
exerts.  But,  though  it  is  constructed  of  the  hardest  mate- 
rials which  the  mines  can  supply,  in  a  few  months,  some  of 
its  essential  parts  are  worn  and  deranged,  even  although  its 
action  should  be  frequently  discontinued.  But  the  animal 
machine,  though  constructed,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  softest 
and  most  flabby  substances,  can  go  on  without  intermission 
in  all  its  diversified  movements,  by  night  and  by  day,  for  the 
space  of  eighty  or  a  hundred  years!  the  heart  giving  ninety- 
six  thousand  strokes  every  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  whole 
mass  of  blood  rushing  through  a  thousand  pipes  of  all  sizes 
every  four  minutes!  And  is  it  man  that  governs  these  nice  and 
complicated  movements  }  Did  he  set  the  heart  in  motion, 
or  endue  it  with  the  muscular  force  it  exerts  ?  And  when  it 
has  ceased  to  beat,  can  he  command  it  again  to  resume  its 
functions }  Man  knows  neither  the  secret  springs  of  the 
machinery  within  him,  nor  the  half  of  the  purposes  for  which 
they  serve,  or  of  the  movements  they  perform.  Can  any 
thing  more  strikingly  demonstrate  our  dependence  every  mo- 
ment on  a  superior  Agent,  and  that  it  is  "in  God  we  live 
and  move,  and  have  our  being  ?"  Were  a  single  pin  of  the 
machinery  within  us,  and  over  which  we  have  no  control, 
either  broken  or  deranged,  a  thousand  movements  might  in- 
stantly be  interrupted  and  our  bodies  left  to  crumble  into  the 
dust. 

It  was  considerations  of  this  kind  that  led  the  celebrated 
physician  Galen,  who  was  a  sceptic  in  his  youth,  publicly  to 
acknowledge  that  a  Supreme  Intelligence  must  have  operated 
in  ordaining  the  laws  by  which  living  beings  are  constructed. 
And  he  wrote  his  excellent  treatise,  "  On  the  uses  of  the  parts 
of  the  human  frame,"  as  a  solemn  hymn  to  the  Creator  of  the 
world.  "  I  first  endeavour  from  His  works,"  he  says,  "  to 
know  myself,  and  afterwards  by  the  same  means  to  show  Him 
to  others;  to  inform  them  how  great  is  his  wisdom,  his  good- 
ness, his  power."  The  late  Dr.  Hunter  has  observed,  that 
astronomy  and  anatomy  are  the  studies  which  present  us  with 
the  mosi  striking  view  of  the  two  most  wonderful  attributes 


288  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

of  the  Supreme  Being.  The  first  of  these  fills  the  mind  with 
the  idea  of  his  immensity,  in  the  largeness,  distances,  and 
number  of  the  heavenly  bodies;  the  last  astonishes  us  with 
his  intelligence  and  art,  in  the  variety  and  delicacy  of  animal 
mechanism. 

2.  The  study  of  the  animal  economy  has  a  powerful  ten- 
dency to  excite  emotions  of  gratitude.  Man  is  naturally  a 
thoughtless  and  ungrateful  creature.  These  dispositions  are 
partly  owing  to  ignorance  of  the  wonders  of  the  human 
frame,  and  of  the  admirable  economy  of  the  visible  world  ; 
and  this  ignorance  is  owing  to  the  want  of  those  specific  in- 
structions which  ought  to  be  communicated  by  parents  and 
teachers,  in  connexion  with  religion.  For  there  is  no  rational 
being,  who  is  acquainted  with  the  structure  of  his  animal  sys- 
tem, and  reflects  upon  it  with  the  least  degree  of  attention, 
but  must  feel  a  sentiment  of  admiration  and  gratitude.  The 
science  which  unfolds  to  us  the  economy  of  our  bodies,  shows 
us,  on  what  an  infinity  of  springs,  and  motions,  and  adapta- 
tions, our  life  and  comfort  depend.  And  when  we  consider, 
that  all  these  movements  are  performed  without  the  least  care 
or  laborious  effort  on  our  part,  if  we  be  not  altogether  brutish, 
and  insensible  of  our  dependence  on  a  superior  Power,  we  must 
be  filled  with  emotions  of  gratitude  towards  Him  "  whose 
hands  have  made  and  fashioned  us,  and  vvho  giveth  us  life,  and 
breath,  and  all  things."  Some  of  the  motions  to  which  I  have 
adverted,  depend  upon  our  will ;  and  with  what  celerity  do 
they  obey  its  commands !  Before  we  can  rise  from  our  chair, 
and  walk  across  our  apartment,  a  hundred  muscles  must  be 
set  in  motion ;  every  one  of  these  must  be  relaxed  or  con- 
stricted, just  to  a  certain  degree,  and  no  more;  and  all  must 
act  harmoniously  at  the  same  instant  of  time ;  and,  at  the 
command  of  the  soul,  all  these  movements  are  instantaneously 
performed.  When  I  wish  to  lift  my  hand  to  my  head,  every 
part  of  the  body  requisite  to  produce  the  effect  is  put  in  motion  : 
the  nerves  are  braced,  the  muscles  are  stretched  or  relaxed, 
the  bones  play  in  their  sockets,  and  the  whole  animal  machine 
concurs  in  the  action,  as  if  every  nerve  and  muscle  had  heard 
a  sovereign  and  resistless  call.  When  I  wish,  the  next  moment, 
to  extend  my  hand  to  my  foot,  all  these  muscles  are  thrown 
into  a  diflerent  state,  and  a  new  set  are  brought  along  with 
them  into  action  ;  and  thus  we  may  vary,  every  moment,  the 
movements  of  the  muscular  system,  and  the  mechanical  actions 
it  produces,  by  a  simple  change  in  our  volition.  Were  we  not 
daily  accustomed  to  such  varied  and  voluntary  movements, 


HISTORY.  :289 

or  could  we  contemplate  them  in  any  other  machine,  we  should 
be  lost  in  wonder  and  astonishment. 

Besides  these  voluntary  motions,  there  are  a  thousand  im- 
portant functions  which  have  no  dependence  upon  our  will. 
Whether  we  think  of  it  or  not,  whether  we  be  sleeping  or 
waking,  sitting  or  walking — the  heart  is  incessantly  exerting 
its  muscular  power  at  the  centre  of  the  system,  and  sending 
off  streams  of  blood  through  hundreds  of  pipes  ;  the  lungs  are 
continually  expanding  and  contracting  their  thousands  of  vesi- 
cles, and  imbibing  the  vital  principle  of  the  air ;  the  stomach 
is  grinding  the  food  :  the  lacteals  and  lymphatics  are  extracting 
nourishment  for  the  blood  ;  the  liver  and  kidneys  drawing  off 
their  secretions ;  and  the  perspiration  issuing  from  millions 
of  pores.  These,  and  many  other  important  functions  with 
which  we  are  unacquainted,  and  over  which  we  have  no  con- 
trol, ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  immediate  agency  of  the 
Deity  within  us,  and  should  excite  our  incessant  admiration 
and  praise. 

There  is  one  peculiarity  in  the  constitution  of  our  animal 
system,  which  we  are  apt  to  overlook,  and  for  which  we  are 
never  sufficiently  grateful ;  and  that  is,  the  power  it  possesses 
of  self-resloralion.  A  wound  heals  up  of  itself;  a  broken 
bone  is  made  firm  again  by  a  callus ;  and  a  dead  part  is  sepa- 
rated and  thrown  off.  If  all  the  wounds  we  have  ever  received 
were  still  open  and  bleeding  afresh,  to  what  a  miserable  condi- 
tion should  we  be  reduced  .^  But  by  a  system  of  internal  powers, 
beyond  all  human  comprehension  as  to  the  mode  of  their  opera- 
tion, such  dismal  effects  are  effectually  prevented.  In  short, 
when  we  consider,  that  health  depends  upon  such  a  numerous 
assemblage  of  moving  organs,  and  that  a  single  spring  out  of 
action  might  derange  the  whole  machine,  and  put  a  stop  to  all 
its  complicated  movements,  can  we  refrain  from  joining  with 
the  Psalmist  in  his  pious  exclamation,  and  grateful  resolution, 
"  How  precious  are  thy  wonderful  contrivances  concerning  me, 

0  God  !  how  great  is  the  sum  of  them  !  I  will  praise  thee  ;  for 

1  am  fearfully  and  wonderfully  made.  Marvellous  are  thy  works, 
and  that  my  soul  knoweth  right  well." 

Omitting  the  consideration  of  several  other  departments  of 
science,  I  shall,  in  the  mean  time,  notice  -only  another  subject 
connected  with  religion,  and  that  is 

HISTORY. 

History  embraces  a  record  and  description  of  past  facts  and 
events  in  reference  to  all  the  nations  and  ages  of  the  world,  in 

25 


290  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER, 

SO  far  as  they  are  known,  and  have  been  transmitted  to  our 
time.  As  natural  history  contains  a  record  of  the  operations 
of  the  Creator  in  the  material  world,  so  sacred  and  civil  his- 
tory embraces  a  record  of  his  transactions  in  the  moral  and 
intellectual  world,  or,  in  other  words,  a  detail  of  the  plans  and 
operations  of  his  Providence,  in  relation  to  the  inhabitants  of 
our  globe. 

During  the  period  of  3500  years  from  the  creation  of  man, 
the  sacred  history  contained  in  the  Old  Testament  is  our  only 
source  of  information  in  reference  to  the  state  of  mankind,  and 
the  events  which  happened  to  the  human  race  throughout  that 
long  interval.  From  the  creation  of  Adam  to  the  deluge — a 
period  of  about  2000  years,  according  to  the  Septuagint  chro- 
nology— we  have  no  authenticated  account  of  what  happened 
to  the  inhabitants  of  the  world,  but  that  w^hich  is  recorded  in 
the  first  eight  chapters  of  the  book  of  Genesis.  And  during  a 
period  of  1500  years  after  the  flood,  the  sacred  history  is  still 
our  only  sure  guide  as  to  the  events  which  took  place  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  This  history,  however,  relates  chiefly 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Judea  and  the  surrounding  nations, — so 
that  the  greater  portion  of  the  history  of  man,  in  reference  to 
all  the  other  nations  of  the  world,  remains  to  be  learned  in  a 
future  state.  The  Old  Testament  records  carry  down  our  views 
of  the  history  of  man  to  the  period  of  the  Jewish  captivity, 
and  to  about  a  hundred  years  posterior  to  that  event,  that  is, 
to  within  four  or  five  hundred  years  of  the  Christian  era. 
About  this  period  civil  history  becomes  definite  and  authentic, 
and  fills  up,  in  some  measure,  the  chasm  which  is  left  in  the 
sacred  history,  so  that,  from  this  period  downwards  to  the  pre- 
sent time — with  the  exception  of  the  New  Testament  records 
— we  are  indebted  to  civil  or  profane  history,  written  by  men 
of  different  nations,  for  all  our  knowledge  of  the  transactions 
of  mankind  and  of  the  events  which  have  befallen  them  during 
the  bypast  period  of  2500  years. 

Civil  history  has  been  divided  into  ancient  and  modern  his- 
tory. Ancient  history  stretches  back  as  far  as  the  authentic  re- 
cords of  nations  can  carry  us ;  but  we  have  no  records  to  be  de- 
pended upon,  separate  from  revelation,  which  can  carry  us  far- 
ther back  in  the  lapse  of  past  ages,  than  about  a  thousand  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  This  department  of  historic  record 
comprehends  the  history  of  the  Egyptians — the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians — the  Jeios  and  Phenicians — the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians— the  Scijthians  and  CeJtoe, — the  Carthagenians^ — and 
particularly,  the  history  of  the  Greeks  and  of  the  Romans, 
which  forms  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  ancient  history,  ex- 


HISTORY. 


291 


tending  from  the  building  of  Rome,  in  the  year  753  before 
Christ,  to  the  subversion  of  the  Roman  empire  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era,  a  period  of  about  1300  years. — Mo- 
dern history  commences,  where  ancient  history  ends,  about  the 
6th  or  7th  century,  and  comprises  the  history  of  France,  Ger- 
many, Britain,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  other  countries  in 
Europe,  together  with  what  is  known  in  modern  times  respect- 
ing the  events  which  have  happened  in  the  kingdoms  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  in  the  settlements  of  Australasia  and  America. 
In  reference  to  all  such  historical  records,  it  is  deeply  to  be 
lamented  that  they  contain  little  else  than  details  of  wars, 
slaughters,  and  devastations,  and  chiefly  present  to  our  view 
pictures  of  extortion,  assassinations,  wholesale  robberies,  the 
destruction  of  empires,  the  burning  of  cities,  and  the  desolation 
of  provinces.  From  these  records,  however,  we  may  learn 
such  instructions  as  the  following  : — 

Through  the  medium  of  sacred  history  we  learn  the  period 
and  the  manner  of  man's  creation ; — the  reason  of  his  fall 
from  the  primitive  state  of  integrity  in  which  he  was  created, 
and  the  dismal  consequences  which  ensued ; — the  various 
movements  of  Providence  in  order  to  his  recovery,  and  the 
means  by  which  human  redemption  was  achieved ;— the  man- 
ner in  which  the  Gospel  was  at  first  promulgated,  the  coun- 
tries into  which  it  was  carried,  and  the  important  effects  it 
produced.  Through  the  medium  of  civil  history  we  learn 
the  deep  and  universal  depravity  of  mankind,  as  exhibited  in 
the  wars,  dissensions,  and  ravages,  which  have  desolated  our 
fallen  race,  in  every  period,  and  in  every  land  ;  we  learn  the 
desperate  wickedness  of  the  human  heart,  in  the  more  private 
acts  of  ferocity,  cruelty,  and  injustice,  which,  in  all  ages,  men 
have  perpetrated  upon  each  other  ] — we  behold  the  righteous- 
ness of  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  the  world,  and  the  equity  of  his 
administration,  in  the  judgements  which  have  been  inflicted 
on  wicked  nations — and  the  improbability,  nay,  the  impossi- 
hiliiy,  of  men  being  ever  restored  to  moral  order  and  happi- 
ness, without  a  more  extensive  diffusion  of  the  blessings  of 
the  Gospel  peace,  and  a  more  cordial  acquiescence  in  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Divine  law. 

Such  being  some  of  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  history, 
it  requires  no  additional  arguments  to  show,  that  this  branch 
of  knowledge  should  occasionally  form  a  subject  of  study  to 
every  intelligent  Christian.  But,  in  order  to  render  the  study 
of  history  subservient  to  the  interests  of  religion,  it  is  not 
enough,  merely  to  gratify  our  curiosity  and  imagination,  by 
following  out  a  succession  of  memorable  events,  by  tracing 


292 


CHRISTIAN  PHILOisOPHER. 


the  progress  of  armies  and  of  battles,  and  listening  to  the 
groans  of  the  vanquished,  and  the  shouts  of  conquerors.  This 
would  be  to  study  history  merely  as  sceptics,  as  atheists,  or 
as  writers  of  novels.  When  we  contemplate  the  facts  which 
the  historian  presents  to  our  view,  we  ought  to  raise  our  eyes 
to  him  who  is  the  Governor  among  the  nations,  "  who  doth 
according  to  his  will  in  the  armies  of  heaven,  and  among  the 
inhabitants  of  the  earth,"  and  who  overrules  the  jarring  inter- 
ests of  mortals,  for  promoting  the  prosperity  of  that  king- 
dom which  shall  never  be  moved.  We  should  view  the 
immoral  propensities  and  dispositions  of  mankind,  as  por- 
trayed in  the  page  of  history,  as  evidences  of  the  depravity 
of  our  species,  and  as  excitements  to  propagate,  with  unremit- 
ting energy,  the  knowledge  of  that  religion,  whose  sublime 
doctrines  and  pure  precepts  alone  can  counteract  the  stream 
of  human  corruption,  and  unite  all  nations  in  one  harmonious 
society.  We  should  view  the  contests  of  nations,  and  the 
results  with  which  they  are  accompanied,  as  guided  by  that 
invisible  Hand  which  "  mustereth  the  armies  to  the  battle ;" 
and  should  contemplate  them  either  as  the  accomplishment  of 
Divine  predictions,  as  the  inflictions  of  retributive  justice,  as 
paving  the  way  for  the  introduction  of  rational  liberty  and 
social  happiness  among  men,  or  as  ushering  in  that  glorious 
period,  when  "  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord  shall  cover  the 
earth,"  and  the  nations  shall  learn  war  no  more. 

Thus  I  have  taken  a  very  cursory  survey  of  some  of  those 
sciences  which  stand  in  a  near  relation  to  the  objects  of 
religion  ;  and  which  may  indeed  be  considered  as  forming  so 
many  of  its  subordinate  branches.  There  are  many  other 
departments  of  knowledge,  which  at  first  view  do  not  seem  to 
have  any  relation  to  theological  science ;  alfd  yet,  on  a  closer 
inspection,  will  be  found  to  be  essentially  connected  with  the 
several  subjects  of  which  1  have  been  treating.  For  exam- 
ple— some  may  be  apt  to  imagine  that  arithmetic,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  and  other  branches  of  mathematics,  can  have 
no  relation  to  the  leading  objects  of  religion.  But  if  these 
sciences  had  never  been  cultivated,  the  most  important  disco- 
veries of  astronomy,  geography,  natural  philolf)phy,  and  che- 
mistry, would  never  have  been  made ;  ships  could  not  have 
been  navigated  across  the  ocean  ;  distant  continents,  and  the 
numerous  "isles  of  the  sea,"  would  have  remained  unex- 
plored, and  their  inhabitants  left  to  grope  in  the  darkness  of 
heathenism;  and  most  of  those  instruments  and  engines  by 
whicli   the   condition   of  the   human   race  will  be  gradually 


HISTORY. 


293 


meliorated,  and  the  inliuence  of  Christianity  extended,  would 
never  liave  been  invented.  Such  is  the  dependence  of  every 
branch  of  useful  knowledge  upon  another,  that  were  any  one 
portion  of  science,  which  has  a  practical  tendency,  to  be  dis- 
carded, it  would  prevent,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  improvement 
of  every  other.  And  consequently,  if  any  one  science  can 
be  shown  to  have  a  connexion  with  religion,  all  the  rest  niust 
likewise  stand  in  a  certain  relation  to  it.  It  must,  therefore, 
have  a  pernicious  effect  on  the  minds  of  the  mass  of  the  Chris- 
tian world,  when  preachers  in  their  sermons  endeavour  to  un- 
dervalue scientific  knowledge,  by  attempting  to  contrast  it  with 
the  doctrines  of  revelation.  It  would  be  just  as  reasonable  to 
attempt  to  contrast  the  several  doctrines,  duties,  and  facts 
recorded  in  the  New  Testament,  with  each  other,  in  order  to 
determine  their  relative  importance,  and  to  show  which  of 
them  might  be  altogether  overlooked  and  discarded.  The 
series  of  facts  and  of  Divine  revelations  comprised  in  the  Bible; 
the  moral  and  political  events  which  diversify  the  history  of 
nations  ;  and  the  physical  operations  that  are  going  on  among 
the  rolling  worlds  on  high,  and  in  the  chemical  changes  of 
the  invisible  atoms  of  matter — are  all  parts  of  one  comprehen- 
sive system,  under  the  direction  of  the  Eternal  Mind  ;  every 
portion  of  which  must  have  a  certain  relation  to  the  whole. 
And  therefore,  instead  of  attempting  to  degrade  one  part  of  the 
Divine  fabric,  in  order  to  enhance  another,  our  duty  is  to  take 
an  expansive  view  of  the  whole,  and  to  consider  the  symme- 
try and  proportion  of  its  parts,  and  their  mutual  bearings  and 
relations,  in  so  far  as  our  opportunities  and  the  limited  facul- 
ties of  our  minds  will  permit. 

If  the  remarks  which  have  been  thrown  out  in  this  chapter, 
respecting  the  connexion  of  the  sciences  with  religion,  have 
any  foundation,  it  will  follow — that  the  sermons,  lectures, 
systems  of  divinity,  and  religious  periodical  works,  should 
embrace  occasional  illustrations  of  such  subjects,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  expanding  the  conceptions  of  professed  Christians, 
and  of  enabling  them  to  take  large  and  comprehensive  views 
of  the  perfections  and  the  providence  of  the  Almighty.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted,  that  so  many  members  of  the  Christian 
church  are  absolute  strangers  to  such  studies  and  contempla- 
tions ;  while  the  time  and  attention  that  might  have  been  de- 
voted to  such  exercises,  have  in  many  cases  been  usurped  by 
the  most  grovelling  aflfections,  by  foolish  pursuits,  by  gossip- 
ing chit-chat,  and  slanderous  conversation.  Shall  the  most 
trifling  and  absurd  opinions  of  ancient  and  modern  heretics 
be  judged  worthy  of  attention,  and  occupy  a  place  in  religious 

25* 


294  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

journals,  and  even  in  discussions  from  the  pulpit;  and  shall 
"  the  mighty  acts  of  the  L©rd,"  and  the  visible  wonders  of  his 
power  and  wisdom,  be  thrown  completely  into  the  shade  ?  To 
survey  with  an  eye  of  intelligence  the  wide-extended  theatre 
of  the  Divine  operations — to  mark  the  agency  of  the  Eternal 
Mind  in  every  object  we  behold,  and  in  every  movement 
within  us  and  around  us,  are  some  of  the  noblest  attainments 
of  the  rational  soul :  and,  in  conjunction  with  every  other 
Christian  study  and  acquirement,  are  calculated  to  make  "  the 
man  of  God  perfect,  and  thoroughly  furnished  unto  every  good 
work."  By  such  studies  we  are,  in  some  measure,  assimi- 
lated to  the  angelic  tribes,  whose  powers  of  intellect  are  for 
ever  employed  in  such  investigations;  and  are  gradually  pre- 
pared for  bearing  a  part  in  their  immortal  hymn — "  Great  and 
marvellous  are  thy  works.  Lord  God  Almighty;  just  and  true 
are  thy  ways,  thou  King  of  saints  !  Thou  art  worthy  to  re- 
ceive glory,  and  honour,  and  power  ;  for  thou  hast  created  all 
things,  and  for  thy  pleasure  they  are  and  were  created." 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  RELATION  WHICH  THE    INVENTIONS  OF  HUMAN  ART 
BEAR  TO  THE  OBJECTS  OF  RELIGION. 

In  this  chapter  I  shall  briefly  notice  a  few  philosophical 
and  mechanical  inventions,  which  have  an  obvious  bearing  on 
religion,  and  on  the  general  propagation  of  Christianity  among 
the  nations. 

The  first,  and  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the  inventions 
to  which  1  allude,  is  the  art  of  printing.  This  art  appears 
to  have  been  invented  (at  least  in  Europe)  about  the  year  1430, 
by  one  Laurentius,  or  Laurence  Koster,  a  native  of  Haerlem, 
a  town  in  Holland.  As  he  was  walking  in  a  wood  near  the 
city,  he  began  to  cut  some  letters  upon  the  rind  of  a  beech 
tree,  which  for  the  sake  of  gratifying  his  fancy,  being  impressed 
on  paper,  he  printed  one  or  tw^o  lines  as  a  specimen  for  his 
grandchildren  to  follow.  This  having  succeeded,  he  medi- 
tated greater  things:  and  first  of  all  invented  a  more  glutinous 
writing-ink,  because  he  found  the  common  ink  sank  and 
spread  ;  and  thus  formed  whole  pages  of  wood,  with  letters 


ART  OF  PIUNTING.  295 

cut  upon  them.*     By  the  gradual  improvement  of  this  art,  and 
its  application  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  a  new  era  was 

*  I  am  aware  that  the  honour  of  this  invention  has  been  claimed  by 
other  cities  besides  Haerlem,  particularly  by  Strasburg,  and  Mentz,  a  city 
of  Germany  ;  and  by  other  individuals  besides  Laurentius,  chiefly  by  one 
Faust,  commonly  called  Dr.  Faustus;  by  Schoeffer,  and  by  Gutenberg. 
It  appears  that  the  art,  with  many  of  its  implements,  was  stolen  from 
Laurentius  by  one  of  his  servants,  whom  he  had  bound  by  an  oath  to  se- 
crecy, who  fled  to  Mentz,  and  first  commenced  the  process  of  printing  in 
that  city.  Here  the  art  was  improved  by  Faust  and  Schoeffer,  by  their 
invention  of  metallic,  instead  of  wooden  types,  which  were  first  used. 
When  Faust  was  in  Paris,  disposing  of  some  Bibles  he  had  printed,  at 
the  low  price  (as  was  then  thought)  of  sixty  ci-owns,  the  number,  and  uni- 
formity of  the  copies  he  possessed,  created  universal  agitation  and  astonish- 
ment. Informations  were  given  to  the  police  against  him  as  a  magician, 
his  lodgings  were  searched,  and  a  great  number  of  copies  being  found, 
they  were  seized ;  the  red  ink  with  which  they  were  embellished,  was 
said  to  be  his  blood :  it  was  seriously  adjudged  that  he  was  in  league  with 
the  devil ;  and  if  he  had  not  fled  from  the  city,  most  probably  he  would 
have  shared  the  fate  of  those  whom  ignorant  and  superstitious  judges,  at 
that  time,  condemned  for  witchcraft.  From  this  circumstance  let  us  learn 
to  beware  how  we  view  the  inventions  of  genius,  and  how  we  treat  those 
whose  ingenious  contrivances  may  afterwards  be  the  means  of  enlightening 
and  meliorating  mankind.     See  Appendix,  Note  IX. 

Various  improvements  have  been  made  of  late  years  in  the  art  of  print- 
ing. The  art  of  stereotyping,  which  was  invented  by  Mr.  Ged,  of  Ediu- 
burg,  in  1725,  but  was  not  brought  into  general  use  till  after  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century — is  now  extensively  used,  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
America,  in  the  printing  of  such  books  as  have  an  extensive  circulation. 
When  a  page  is  intended  to  be  stereotyped,  the  types  are,  in  the  first 
instance,  put  up  in  the  usual  way ;  but  instead  of  being  carried  to  the 
press,  the  page  is  plastered  over  with  Hquid  stucco  to  the  thickness  of 
about  half  an  inch,  so  that  a  level  cake  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the 
types.  As  soon  as  the  stucco  hardens,  the  cake  is  separated  from  the 
types,  and,  on  being  turned  up,  shows  a  complete  mould-like  representa- 
tion of  the  faces  of  the  types ;  and  there  being  no  longer  any  use  for  the 
types,  they  are  carried  off  and  distributed.  After  the  cake  is  hardened  by 
putting  it  into  an  oven,  it  is  next  laid  in  a  square  iron  pan,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  is  a  movable  plate  upon  which  the  mould  is  placed  with  its  face 
downwards.  The  pan  is  then  immersed  in  a  pot  of  molten  lead,  and 
when  the  lead  has  run  into  the  mould  side  of  the  cake,  and  formed  a  thin 
plate  all  over,  there  is  produced  the  perfect  appearance  of  the  faces  of  the 
types  on  which  the  stucco  was  plastered.  The  stereotype  plates,  thus 
prepared,  are  next  taken  to  the  printing  office  and  made  ready  for  the 
press,  by  placing  them  on  iron  or  wooden  blocks,  so  that  both  plate  and 
block  make  up  the  exact  height  of  a  page  of  real  types.  In  this  manner 
any  number  of  copies  of  a  book  may  be  printed  at  any  time,  without  again 
incurring  the  trouble  and  expense  of  resetting  the  types,  as  is  necessary 
to  be  done  in  printing  new  editions.  Chambers'  "Edinburgh  Journal" 
is  regularly  stereotyped  in  this  way.  The  types  being  put  up  on  the  pre- 
mises of  the  publishers  are  sent  off  in  pages  to  a  stereotype  foundry  wIiHre 
two  sets  of  plates  are  moulded.  One  set  of  plates  is  kept  for  use  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  other  sent  in  a  box  by  the  Royal  mail  or  steam  vessel  to 
London,  where  it  is  immediately  subjected  to  a  steam  press,  and  in  a  few 
hours  made  to  produce  20,000  or  more  printed  sheets. 

Steam-printing — which  is  now  coining  into  general  use — appears  to 
have  been  first  introduced  by  Mr.  Konig,  a  German,  about  1804.  The 
Times  newspaper  of  November  28,  1814,  appears  to  have  been  the  first 


296  CHRISTIAN   rHlLO.SOl'HEU. 

formed  in  the  annals  of  the  human  race,  and  in  the  progress 
of  science,  religion,  and  morals.  To  it  we  are  chiefly  indebted 
for  cur  deliverance  from  ignorance  and  error,  and  for  most  of 
those  scientific  discoveries  and  improvements  in  the  arts  which 
distinguish  the  period  in  which  we  live.  Without  its  aid,  the 
reformation  from  popery  could  scarcely  have  been  achieved ; 
for  had  the  books  of  Luther,  one  of  the  first  reformers,  been 
multiplied  by  the  slow  process  of  handwriting  and  copying, 
they  could  never  have  been  diffused  to  any  extent;  and  the 
influence  of  bribery  and  of  power  might  have  been  sufficient 
to  have  arrested  their  progress,  or  even  to  have  erased  their 
existence.  But,  being  poured  forth  from  the  press  in  thou- 
sands at  a  time,  they  spread  over  the  nations  of  Europe,  like 
an  inundation,  and  with  a  rapidity  which  neither  the  authority 
of  princes,  nor  the  schemes  of  priests  and  cardinals,  nor  the 
bulls  of  popes,  could  counteract  or  suspend.  To  this  noble 
invention  it  is  owing  that  copies  of  the  Bible  have  been  multi- 
plied to  the  extent  of  many  millions — that  ten  thousands  of  them 
are  to  be  found  in  every  Protestant  country — and  that  the 
poorest  individual  who  expresses  a  desire  for  it,  may  be  fur- 
nished with  the  "  word  of  life,"  which  will  guide  him  to  a 
blessed  immortality.  That  Divine  light  which  is  destined  to 
illuminate  every  region  of  the  globe,  and  to  sanctify  and 
reform  men  of  all  nations,  and  kindreds,  and  tongues,  is  ac- 
celerated in  its  movements,  and  directed  in  its  course  through 
the  nations,  by  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing ;  and  ere 
long  it  will  distribute  among  the  inhabitants  of  every  land,  the 
"  law  and  the  testimony  of  the  Most  High,"  to  guide  their 
steps  to  the  region  of  eternal  bliss.  In  short,  there  is  not  a 
more  powerful  engine  in  the  hand  of  Providence,  for  diffusing 
the  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  the  will  of  the  Deity,  and 
for  accomplishing  the  grand  objects  of  revelation,  than  the  art 


ever  printed  by  machinery  propelled  by  slcam,  and  the  numbers  of  that 
paper  have  been  thrown  off  by  the  same  process  ever  since.  A  machine 
of  this  description  with  one  cyhnder,  throws  off  from  900  to  1200  sheets 
in  an  hour  on  one  side,  requiring  two  boys,  one  to  lay  on  the  paper,  and 
another  to  receive  it  when  printed.  A  machine  with  two  cyhnders  throws 
off  at  the  rate  of  from  1600  to  2200  an  hour,  requiring  two  boys  to  lay  on 
the  sheets,  and  two  to  take  them  off — exclusively  for  newspapers.  A  ma- 
chine similar  to  that  used  by  the  "  I'imes,"  with  four  printing  cylinders,  re- 
quiring the  attendance  of  eight  boys,  throws  off  about  4000  sheets  an  hour. 
By  the  erection  of  such  steam  presses  the  three  grand  requisites,  speediness 
of  execution,  quantity,  and  cheapness  of  labour,  are  secured  to  an  extent 
which  could  scarcely  have  been  anticipated  in  a  preceding  age,  and  which 
is  calculated  to  supply  the  exigencies  of  the  limes  in  which  we  live,  when 
knowledge  of  every  description  is  rapidly  diffusing  itself  among  all  ranks 
of  [he  community. 


297 

of  nniltiplying  books,  and  of  conveying  intelligence  through 
the  medium  of  the  press.  Were  no  such  art  in  existence,  we 
cannot  conceive  how  an  extensive  and  universal  propagation 
of  the  doctrines  of  revelation  could  be  effected,  unless  after 
the  lapse  of  an  indefinite  number  of  ages.  But  with  the  assist- 
ance of  this  invention,  in  its  present  improved  state,  the  island 
of  Great  Britain  alone,  within  less  than  a  hundred  years, 
could  furnish  a  copy  of  the.  Scriptures  to  every  inhabitant  of 
the  world,  and  could  defray  the  expense  of  such  an  undertak- 
ing, with  much  more  ease,  and  with  a  smaller  sum,  than  were 
necessary  to  finish  the  political  warfare  in  which  we  were 
lately  engaged. 

These  considerations  teach  us,  that  the  ingenious  inventions 
of  the  human  mind  are  under  the  direction  and  control  of  the 
Governor  of  the  world — are  intimately  connected  with  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  plans  of  his  providence  ;  and  have  a  ten- 
dency, either  directly  or  indirectly,  to  promote,  over  every 
region  of  the  earth,  the  progress  and  extension  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Redeemer.  They  also  show  us  from  what  small  be- 
ginnings the  most  magnificent  operations  of  the  Divine  eco- 
nomy may  derive  their  origin.  Who  could  have  imagined, 
that  the  simple  circumstance  of  a  person  amusing  hiuist'lf  by 
cutting  a  few  letters  on  the  bark  of  a  tree,  and  impressing  them 
on  paper,  was  intimately  connected  with  the  mental  illumina- 
tion of  mankind  }  and  that  the  art  which  sprang  from  tliis 
casual  process  was  destined  to  be  the  principal  mean  of  illu- 
minating the  nations  and  conveying  to  the  ends  of  the  eailh 
"  the  salvation  of  our  God  ?"  But  "  He  who  rules  in  the 
armies  of  heaven,  and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth," 
and  who  sees  "  the  end  from  the  beginning,"  overrules  the 
most  minute  movements  of  all  his  creatures,  in  subserviency 
to  his  ultimate  designs,  and  shows  himself,  in  this  respect,  to 
be  "wonderful  in  counsel,  and  excellent  in  working." 

The  mariner's  compass. — Another  invention,  which  has 
an  intimate  relation  to  religion,  is  the  art  of  Tiavigation^  and 
the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass.  Navigation  is  the 
art  of  conducting  a  ship  through  the  sea,  from  one  port  to 
another.  This  art  was  partly  known  and  practised  in  the 
early  ages  of  antiquity,  by  the  Phenicians,  the  Carthagenians, 
the  Egyptians,  the  Romans,  and  other  nations  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  But  they  had  no  guide  to  direct  them  in  their  voyages, 
except  the  sun  in  the  day  time,  and  the  stars  by  night.  Wiien 
the  sky  was  overcast  with  clouds,  they  were  thrown  into 
alarms,  and  durst  not  venture  to  any  great  distance  from  the 
coast,  lest  they  should  be  carried  forward  in  a  course  opposite 


298  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

to  that  wliich  they  intended,  or  be  driven  against  hidden  rocks, 
or  unknown  shores.  The  danger  and  difficulty  of  the  navi- 
gation of  the  ancients  on  this  account  may  be  learned  from 
the  deliberations,  the  great  preparations,  and  the  alarms  of 
Homer's  heroes,  when  they  were  about  to  cross  the  jEgean 
sea,  an  extent  not  more  than  one  hundred  and  tifty  miles  ;  and 
the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  under  .Tason,  across  the  sea  of 
Marmora  and  the  Euxine,  to  the-island  of  Colchis,  a  distance 
of  only  four  or  five  hundred  miles,  was  viewed  as  a  most 
wonderful  exploit,  at  which  even  the  gods  themselves  were 
said  to  be  amazed.  The  same  thing  appears  from  the  narra- 
tion we  have  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  of  PauPs  voyage 
from  Cassarea  to  Rome.  "  When,"  says  Luke,  "  neither  sun 
nor  stars  in  many  days  appeared,  and  no  small  tempest  la)^  on 
us,  all  hope  that  we  should  be  saved  was  then  taken  away." 
Being  deprived  of  these  guides,  they  were  tossed  about  in  the 
Mediterranean,  not  knowing  whether  they  were  carried  to  north, 
south,  east,  or  west.  So  that  the  voyages  of  antiquity  consisted 
chiefly  in  creeping  along  the  coast,  and  seldom  venturing  be- 
yond sight  of  land  •,  they  could  not,  therefore,  extend  their  ex- 
cursions by  sea  to  distant  continents  and  nations;  and  hence 
the  greater  portion  of  the  terraqueous  globe  and  its  inhabitants 
was  to  them  altogether  unknown.  It  was  not  before  the  in- 
vention of  the  mariner's  compass,  that  distant  voyages  could 
be  undertaken,  that  extensive  oceans  could  be  traversed,  and 
an  intercourse  carried  on  between  remote  continents  and  the 
islands  of  the  ocean. 

Jt  is  somewhat  uncertain  at  what  precise  period  this  noble 
discovery  was  made  ;  but  it  appears  pretty  evident,  that  the 
mariner's  compass  was  not  commonly  used  in  navigation  be- 
fore the  year  1420,  or  only  a  few  years  before  the  invention 
of  printing.*  The  loadstone,  in  all  ages,  was  known  to  have 
the  property  of  attracting  iron  ;  but  its  tendency  to  point  to- 
wards the  north  and  south  seems  to  have  been  unnoticed  till 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  About  that  time,  some 
curious  persons  seem  to  have  amused  themselves  by  making 

*  The  invention  of  the  compass  is  usually  ascribed  to  Flavio  Gioiaof 
Anialfi,  in  Campania,  about  the  year  1302;  and  the  Italians  are  strenuous 
in  support  of  this  claim.  Others  affirm,  that  Marcus  Faulus,  a  Venetian, 
liaving  made  a  journey  to  China,  brought  back  the  invention  with  him  in 
1260.  The  French  also  lay  claim  to  the  honour  of  this  invention,  from  the 
circumstance,  that  all  nations  distinguish  the  north  point  of  ihe  card  by  a 
fe.itr  de  lis;  and  with  equal  reason,  the  English  have  laid  claim  to  the 
same  honour,  i'rom  the  name  compass,  by  which  most  nations  have  agreed 
to  distinguish  it.  But  whoever  were  the  inventors,  or  at  whatever  period 
this  instrument  was  first  constructed,  it  does  not  appear  that  it  was  brought 
into  general  use  before  the  period  mentioned  in  the  text. 


mariner's  compass,  299 

to  swim,  in  a  basin  of  water,  a  loadstone  suspended  on  a  piece 
of  cork ;  and  to  have  remarked  that,  when  at  liberty,  one  of 
its  extremities  pointed  to  the  north.  They  had  also  remarked, 
that  when  a  piece  of  iron  is  rubbed  against  the  loadstone,  it 
acquires  also  the  property  of  turning  towards  the  north,  and 
of  attracting  needles  and  tilings  of  iron.  From  one  experiment 
to  another,  they  proceeded  to  lay  a  needle,  touched  with  the 
magnet,  on  two  small  bits  of  straw  floating  on  the  water,  and 
to  observe  that  the  needle  invariably  turned  its  point  towards 
the  north.  The  first  use  they  seem  to  have  made  of  these  ex- 
periments was  to  impose  upon  simple  people  by  the  appear- 
ance of  magic.  For  example,  a  hollow  swan,  or  the  figure 
of  a  mermaid,  was  made  to  swim  in  a  basin  of  water,  and  to 
follow  a  knife  with  a  bit  of  bread  upon  its  point,  which  had 
been  previously  rubbed  on  the  loadstone.  The  experimenter 
convinced  them  of  his  power,  by  commanding,  in  this  way,  a 
needle  laid  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  to  turn  its  point  from 
the  north  to  the  east,  or  in  any  other  direction.  But  some 
geniuses,  of  more  sublime  and  reflective  powers  of  mind, 
seizing  upon  these  hints,  at  last  applied  these  experiments  to 
the  wants  of  navigation,  and  constructed  an  instrument,  by  the 
help  of  which  the  mariner  can  now  direct  his  course  to  distant 
lands,  through  the  vast  and  pathless  ocean.  Fig.  27  gives  a 
general  representation  of  the  mariner's  compass. 
Fig.  27. 
N. 


S. 
In  consequence  of  the  discovery  of  this  instrument,  the  coasts 
of  almost  every  land  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  have  been  ex- 
plored, and  a  regular  intercourse  opened  up  between  the  re- 
motest regions  of  the  earth.  Without  the  help  of  this  noble 
invention,  America,  in  all  probability,  would  never  have  been 


300  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

discovered  by  the  eastern  nations, — the  vast  continent  of  New 
Holland — the  numerous  and  interesting  islands  in  the  Indian  and 
Pacific  oceans — the  isles  of  Japan,  and  other  immense  territories 
inhabited  by  human  beings,  would  have  remained  as  much  un- 
known and  unexplored  as  if  they  had  never  existed.  And  as 
the  nations  of  Europe,  and  the  western  part  of  Asia,  were  the 
sole  depositories  of  the  records  of  revelation,  they  could  never 
have  conveyed  the  blessings  of  salvation  to  remote  countries, 
and  to  unknown  tribes  of  mankind,  of  whose  existence  they 
were  entirely  ignorant.  Even  although  the  whole  terraqueous 
globe  had  been  sketched  out  before  them,  in  all  its  aspects 
and  bearings,  and  ramifications  of  islands,  continents,  seas, 
and  oceans,  and  the  moral  and  political  state  of  every  tribe  of 
its  inhabitants  displayed  to  view, — without  a  guide  to  direct 
their  course  through  the  billows  of  the  ocean,  they  could 
have  afforded  no  light  and  relief  to  cheer  the  distant  nations 
"  who  sit  in  darkness,  and  in  the  shadow  of  death."  Though 
the  art  of  printing  had  been  invented  ;  though  millions  of  Bibles 
were  now  prepared,  adequate  to  the  supply  of  all  the  "  kin- 
dreds of  the  heathen ;"  though  ships  in  abundance  were 
equipped  for  the  enterprise,  and  thousands  of  missionaries 
ready  to  embark,  and  to  devote  their  lives  to  the  instruction 
of  the  Pagan  world — all  would  be  of  no  avail,  and  the  "salva- 
tion of  God"  could  never  be  proclaimed  to  the  ends  of  the 
world,  unless  they  had  the  mariner's  compass  to  guide  their 
course  through  the  trackless  ocean. 

In  this  invention,  then,  we  behold  a  proof  of  the  agency  of 
Divine  Providence,  in  directing  the  efforts  of  human  genius  to 
subserve  the  most  important  designs,  and  contemplate  a  striking 
specimen  of  the  "manifold  wisdom  of  God."  When  the  pious 
and  contemplative  Israelite  reflected  on  the  declaration  of  the 
prophets,  that  "  the  glory  of  Jehovah  should  be  revealed,  and 
that  all  flesh  should  see  it  together," — from  the  state  of  the 
arts  which  then  existed,  he  must  have  felt  many  difficulties  in 
forming  a  conception  of  the  maimer  in  which  such  predictions 
could  be  realized.  "  The  great  and  wide  sea,"  now  termed 
the  Mediterranean,  formed  the  boundary  of  his  view,  beyond 
w^hich  he  was  unable  to  penetrate.  Of  the  continents,  and 
"  the  isles  afar  off,"  and  of  the  far  more  spacious  oceans  that 
lay  between,  he  had  no  knowledge  ;  and  how  "  the  ends  of 
the  earth"  were  to  be  reached,  he  could  form  no  conception ; 
and,  in  the  midst  of  his  perplexing  thoughts,  he  could  find 
satisfaction  only  in  the  firm  belief,  that  "  with  God  all  things 
are  possible."  But  now  we  are  enabled  not  only  to  contem- 
plate the  grand  designs  of  the  Divine  economy,  but  the  prin- 


THE   TELESCOPE.  301 

cipal  means  by  which  they  shall  all,  in  due  time,  be  accom- 
plished, in  consequence  of  the  progress  of  science  and  art, 
and  of  their  consecration  to  the  rearing  and  extension  of  the 
Christian  church. 

The  two  inventions  to  which  I  have  now  adverted,  may, 
perhaps,  be  considered  as  among  the  most  striking  instances  of 
tlie  connexion  of  human  art  with  the  objects  of  religion.  But 
there  are  many  other  inventions  which,  at  first  view,  do  not 
appear  to  bear  so  near  a  relation  to  the  progress  of  Christianity, 
and  yet  have  an  ultimate  reference  to  some  of  its  grand  and  in- 
teresting objects. 

The  TELESCOPE. — We  might  be  apt  to  think,  on  a  slight 
view  of  the  matter,  that  there  can  be  no  immediate  relation 
between  the  grinding  and  polishing  of  an  optic  glass,  and  fitting 
two  or  more  of  them  in  a  tube — and  the  enlargement  of  our 
views  of  the  operations  of  the  Eternal  Mind.  Yet  the  con- 
nexion between  these  two  objects,  and  the  dependence  of  the 
latter  upon  the  former,  can  be  fairly  demonstrated.  Tlie  son  of  a 
spectacle-maker  of  Middleburg,  in  Holland,  happening  to  amuse 
himself  in  his  father's  shop,  by  holding  two  glasses  between 
his  finger  and  thumb,  and  varying  their  distance,  perceived  the 
weathercock  of  the  church  spire  opposite  to  him,  much  larger 
than  ordinary,  and  apparently  much  nearer,  and  turned  upside 
down.  This  new  wonder  excited  the  amazement  of  the  father; 
he  adjusted  two  glasses  on  a  board,  rendering  them  movable 
at  pleasure;  and  thus  formed  the  first  rude  imitation  of  a  per- 
spective glass,  by  which  distant  objects  are  brought  near  to 
view.  Galileo,  a  philosopher  of  Tuscany,  hearing  of  the  in- 
vention, set  his  mind  to  work,  in  order  to  bring  it  to  perfection. 
He  fixed  his  glasses  at  the  end  of  long  organ  pipes,  and  con- 
structed a  telescope,  which  he  soon  directed  to  different  parts 
of  the  surrounding  heavens.  He  discovered  four  moons  re- 
volving around  the  planet  Jupiter — spots  on  the  surface  of  the 
Sun,  and  the  rotation  of  that  globe  around  his  axis — moun- 
tains and  valleys  in  the  moon — and  numbers  of  fixed  stars 
where  scarcely  one  was  visible  to' the  naked  eye.  These  dis- 
coveries were  made  about  the  year  1610,  a  short  time  after  the 
first  invention  of  the  telescope.  Since  that  period,  this  instru- 
ment has  passed  through  various  degrees  of  improvement,  and, 
by  means  of  it,  celestial  wonders  have  been  explored  in  the 
distant  spaces  of  the  universe,  whicli,  in  former  times,  were 
altogether  concealed  from  mortal  view.  By  the  help  of  tele- 
scopes, combined  with  the  art  of  measuring  the  distances  and 
magnitudes  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  our  views  of  the  grandeur 
of  the  Almighty,  of  the  plentitude  of  his  power,  and  of  the 

26 


302  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

extent  of  his  universal  empire,  are  extended  far  beyond  what 
could  have  been  conceived  in  former  ages.  Our  prospects  of 
the  range  of  the  Divine  operations  are  no  longer  confined 
within  the  limits  of  the  world  we  inhabit ;-— we  can  now  plainly 
perceive,  that  the  kingdom  of  God  is  not  only  "an  everlasting 
dominion,"  but  that  it  extends  through  the  unlimited  regions 
of  space,  comprehending  within  its  vast  circumference  thou- 
sands of  suns,  and  ten  thousands  of  worlds,  all  ranged  in  ma- 
jestic order,  at  immense  distances  from  one  another,  and  all 
supported  and  governed  "  by  Him  who  rides  on  the  heaven  of 
heavens,"  whose  greatness  is  unsearchable,  and  whose  under- 
standing is  infinite. 

The  telescope  has  also  demonstrated  to  us  the  literal  truth 
of  those  scriptural  declarations  which  assert  that  the  stars  are 
"  innumerable."  Before  the  invention  of  this  instrument,  not 
more  than  about  a  thousand  stars  could  be  perceived  by  the 
unassisted  eye  in  the  clearest  night.  But  this  invention  has 
unfolded  to  view  not  only  thousands,  but  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands, and  millions,  of  those  bright  luminaries,  which  lie  dis- 
persed in  every  direction  throughout  the  boundless  dimensions 
of  space.  In  the  Milky  Way — a  w^hitish  zone  or  circle  which 
surrounds  the  heavens — more  than  ten  millions  of  stars  might 
be  distinguished  by  means  of  the  best  telescopes.  And  the 
higher  the  magnifying  and  illuminating  powers  of  the  telescope 
are,  the  more  numerous  those  celestial  orbs  appear ;  leaving  us 
no  room  to  doubt,  that  countless  myriads  more  lie  hid  in  the 
distant  regions  of  creation,  far  beyond  the  reach  of  the  finest 
glasses  that  can  be  constructed  by  human  skill,  and  which  are 
known  only  to  Him  "  who  counts  the  number  of  the  stars,  and 
calls  them  by  their  names." 

In  short,  the  telescope  may  be  considered  as  serving  the 
purpose  of  a  vehicle  for  conveying  us  to  the  distant  regions  of 
space.  We  would  consider  it  as  a  wonderful  achievement, 
could  we  transport  ourselves  two  hundred  thousand  miles  from 
the  earth,  in  the  direction  of  the  moon,  in  order  to  take  a  nearer 
view  of  that  celestial  orb.  feut  this  instrument  enables  us  to 
take  a  much  nearer  inspection  of  that  planet,  than  if  we  had 
actually  surmounted  the  force  of  gravitation,  traversed  the 
voids  of  space,  and  left  the  earth  230,000  miles  behind  us. 
For,  supposing  such  a  journey  to  be  accomplished,  we  should 
still  be  ten  thousand  miles  distant  from  that  orb.  But  a  tele- 
scope which  magnifies  objects  240  times,  can  carry  our  views 
within  ONE  thousand  miles  of  the  moon  ;  and  a  telescope,  such 
as  Sir  W.  HerschePs  40  feet  reflector,  which  magnifies  6000 
times,  would  enable  us  to  view  the  mountains  and  vales  of  the 


THE  TELESCOPE. 


303 


moon,  as  if  we  were  transported  to  a  point  about  forty  miles 
from  her  surface.*  We  can  vievv  the  magnificent  system  of 
the  planet  Saturn,  by  means  of  this  instrument,  as  distinctly, 
as  if  we  had  performed  a  journey  eight  hundred  millions  of 
miles  in  the  direction  of  that  globe;  which,  at  the  rate  of  50 
miles  an  hour,  would  require  a  period  of  more  than  eighteen 
hundred  years  to  accomplish.  By  the  telescope,  we  can  con- 
template the  region  of  the  fixed  stars,  their  arrangement  into 
systems,  and  their  immense  numbers,  with  the  same  distinct- 
ness and  amplitude  of  view,  as  if  we  had  actually  taken  a  flight 
of  ten  hundred  thousand  millions  of  miles  into  those  unex- 
plored and  unexplorable  regions,  which  could  not  be  accom- 
plished in  several  millions  of  years,  though  our  motion  were 

*  Though  the  highest  magnifying  power  of  Sir  W.  Herschel's  large 
telescope  was  estimated  at  six  thousand  times,  yet  it  does  not  appear  that 
he  ever  applied  this  power  with  success,  when  viewing  the  moon  and  the 
planets.  The  deficiency  of  light,  when  using  so  high  a  power,  would  ren- 
der the  view  of  these  objects  less  satisfactory  than  Avhen  viewed  with  a 
power  of  only  a  thousand  times.  Still,  it  is  quite  certain,  that  if  any  por- 
tions of  the  moon's  surface  were  viewed  through  an  instrument  of  such  a 
power,  they  would  appear  as  large  (but  not  nearly  sobright  and  distinct)  as 
if  we  were  placed  about  40  miles  distant  from  that  body.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  tlie  angle  of  vision,  in  this  case,  or  the  apparent  distance  at  which 
the  moon  would  be  contemplated,  is  found  by  dividing  the  moon's  distance 
— 240,000  miles,  by  6000,  the  magnifying  power  of  the  telescope,  which 
produces  a  quotient  of  40 — the  number  of  miles  at  which  the  moon  would 
appear  to  be  placed  from  the  eye  of  the  observer.  Sir  W.  Herschel  ap- 
pears  to  have  used  the  highest  powers  of  his  telescopes  only,  or  chiefly, 
when  viewing  some  very  minute  objects  in  the  region  of  the  stars.  The 
powers  he  generally  used,  and  with  which  he  made  most  of  his  discoveries, 
were  227,460,754,932,  and  occasionally  2010,3168,  and  6450,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  experiments  of  their  effect  on  double  stars,  &c. 

Lord  Oxmantown,  now  Earl  of  Rosse,  has  for  some  years  past  been 
projecting  the  construction  of  a  reflecting  telescope  of  much  larger  dimen- 
sions than  the  40  feet  telescope  of  Herschel — which  has  long  been  out  of 
use,  and  has  been  lately  dismantled.  The  casting  of  this  speculum  took 
place  in  April,  1842.  The  metal  is  6  feet  diameter,  5^  inches  thick  at  the 
edges,  and  5  inches  at  the  centre,  and  its  weight  is  about  three  tons.  Its 
composition  is  copper  and  tin — 126  parts  of  copper  to  57j  of  tin.  The  price 
of  the  copper  alone  is  reckoned  at  about  £100.  By  grinding  and  pohshmg, 
its  thickness  will  be  reduced  one-eighth  or  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  It  is  intend- 
ed to  be  formed  into  a  telescope  of  fifty  feet  focal  length,  and  it  is  expected 
to  be  finished  in  the  course  of  less  than  a  year.  The  casting  of  this  im- 
mense speculum,  with  all  the  operations  connected  with  it,  was  accom- 
plished without  any  accident,  and  with  a  degree  of  success  beyond  expec- 
tation. This  speculum  will  have  a  reflecting  surface  of  4071  square  inches, 
while  that  of  Herschel's  forty  feet  telescope  had  only  1811  square  inches 
on  its  polished  surface ;  so  that  the  quantity  of  light  reflected  from  this  spe- 
culum when  polished,  will  be  considerably  more  than  double  that  of  Her- 
schel's largest  reflector.  When  (his  telescope  is  finished  and  erected  for  ob- 
servation, it  will  form  one  of  the  most  noble  and  splendid  instruments  of 
the  kind  that  have  ever  been  constructed, — and  it  is  not  improbable  that, 
by  its  assistance,  some  interesting  discoveries  may  be  made  in  the  regions 
o(  the  stars. 


304  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

as  rapid  as  a  ball  projected  from  a  loaded  cannon.  We  would 
jusdy  consider  it  as  a  noble  endowment  for  enabling  us  to 
take  an  extensive  survey  of  the  works  of  God,  if  we  had  the 
faculty  of  transporting  ourselves  to  such  immense  distances 
from  the  sphere  we  now  occupy ;  but  by  means  of  the  tele- 
scopic tube,  we  may  take  nearly  the  same  ample  views  of  the 
dominions  of  the  Creator,  without  stirring  a  foot  from  the 
limits  of  our  terrestrial  abodes  This  instrument  may,  there- 
fore, be  considered  as  a  providential  gift  bestowed  upon  man- 
kind, to  serve,  m  the  mean  time,  as  a  temporary  substitute  for 
those  powers  of  rapid  flight  with  which  the  seraphim  are  en- 
dowed, and  for  those  superior  faculties  of  motion  with  which 
man  himself  may  be  invested,  when  he  arrives  at  the  summit 
of  moral  perfection.* 

The  MICROSCOPE. — The  microscope  is  another  instrument, 
constructed  on  similar  principles,  which  has  greatly  expanded 
our  views  of  the  "  manifold  wisdom  of  God."  This  instrument, 
which  discovers  to  us  small  objects  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
was  invented  soon  after  the  invention  and  improvement  of  the 
telescope.  By  means  of  this  optical  contrivance,  we  perceive 
a  variety,  of  wonders  in  almost  every  object  in  the  animal, 
the  vegetable,  and  the  mineral  kingdoms.  We  perceive  that 
every  particle  of  matter,  however  minute,  has  a  determinate 
form — that  the  very  scales  on  the  skin  of  a  haddock  are  all 
beautifully  interwoven  and  variegated,  like  pieces  of  network, 
which  no  art  can  imitate — that  the  points  of  the  prickles  of 
vegetables,  though  magnified  a  thousand  times,  appear  as  sharp 
and  well  polished  as  to  the  naked  eye — that  every  particle  of 
the  dust  on  a  moth  or  a  butterfly's  wing,  is  a  beautiful  and  re- 
gularly organized  feather — that  every  hair  of  our  head  is  a 
hollow  tube,  with  bulbs  and  roots,  furnished  with  a  variety  of 
threads  and  filaments — and  that  the  pores  in  our  skin,  through 
which  the  sweat  and  perspiration  flow,  are  so  numerous  and 
minute,  that  a  grain  of  sand  would  cover  a  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  thousand  of  them.  We  perceive  animated  beings  in  cer- 
tain liquids,  so  small  tliat  fifty  thousand  of  them  would  not 
equal  the  size  of  a  mite  ;  and  yet  each  of  these  creatures  is  fur- 
nished with  a  mouth,  eyes,  stomach,  blood-vessels,  and  other 
organs  for  the  performance  of  animal  functions,  hi  a  stagnant 
pool  which  is  covered  with  a  greenish  scum  during  the  sum- 
mer months,  every  drop  of  the  water  is  found  to  be  a  world 
teeming  with  thousands  of  inhabitants.  The  mouldy  substance 
which  usually  adheres  to  damp  bodies,  exhibits  a  forest  of  trees 

*  See  Appendix,  Note  X. 


mariner's  compass.  305 

and  plants,  where  the  branches,  leaves,  and  friiit,  can  be  plainly 
flistinguished.  In  a  word,  by  this  admirable  instrnmenl  we 
behold  the  same  Almighty  Hand  which  rounded  the  spacious 
globe  on  which  we  live,  and  the  huge  masses  of  the  planetary 
orbs,  and  directs  them  in  their  rapid  motions  through  the  sky, 
— employed,  at  the  same  moment,  in  rounding  and  polishing  ten 
thousand  minute  transparent  globes  in  tl?e  eye  of  a  fly;  and 
boring  and  arranging  veins  and  arteries,  and  forming  and  clasp- 
ing joints  and  claws,  for  the  movements  of  a  mite  I  We  thus 
learn  the  admirable  and  astonishing  effects  of  the  wisdom  of 
God  and  that  the  divine  care  and  benevolence  are  as  much 
displayed  in  the  constructioii  of  the  smallest  insect,  as  in  the 
elephant  or  the  whale,  or  in  those  ponderous  globes  which 
roll  around  us  in  the  sky.  These,  and  thousands  of  other 
views  which  the  microscope  exhibits,  would  never  have  been 
displayed  to  the  human  mind,  had  they  not  been  opened  up 
by  this  admirable  invention. 

In  fine,  by  means  of  the  two  instruments  to  which  I  have 
now  adverted,  we  behold  Jehovah's  empire  extending  to  infi- 
nity on  either  hand.  By  the  telescope  we  are  presented  with 
the  most  astonishing  displays  of  his  oimiipotence^  in  the  im- 
mense number,  the  rapid  motions,  and  the  inconceivable  mag- 
nitude, of  the  celestial  globes  ; — and,  by  the  microscope  we 
behold,  what  is  still  more  inconceivable,  a  display  of  his 
unsearchable  wisdom  in  the  Divine  mechanism,  by  which  a 
drop  of  water  is  peopled  with  myriads  of  inhabitants — a  fact, 
which,  were  it  not  subject  to  ocular  demonstration,  would  far 
exceed  the  limits  of  human  conception  or  belief.  We  have 
thus  the  most  striking  and  sensible  evidence,  that,  from  the 
immeasurable  luminaries  of  heaven,  and  from  the  loftiest 
seraph  that  stands  before  the  throne  of  God,  down  to  this 
lower  world,  and  to  the  smallest  microscopic  animalculum 
that  eludes  the  finest  glass — He  is  every  where  present,  and, 
by  his  power,  intelligence,  and  agency,  animates,  supports,  and 
directs  the  whole.  Such  views  and  contemplations  naturally 
lead  us  to  advert  to  the  character  of  God,  as  delineated  by  the 
sacred  writers,  that  "He  is  of  great  power  and  mighty  in 
strength;"  that  "His  understanding  is  infinite;"  that  "His 
works  are  wonderful ;"  that  "  His  operations  are  unsearchable, 
and  past  finding  out :"  and  they  must  excite  the  devout  mind 
to  join  with  fervour  in  the  language  of  adoration  and  praise — 

When  thy  amazing  works,  O  God  ! 

My  mental  eye  surveys, 
"  Transported  witli  the  view,  I'm  lost 

In  wonder,  love,  and  praise." 
26* 


306  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

Steam  navigation. — We  might  have  been  apt  to  suppose, 
that  the  chemical  experiments  that  were  first  made  to  demon- 
strate the  force  of  steam  as  a  mechanical  agent,  could  have 
little  relation  to  the  objects  of  religion,  or  even  to  the  comfort 
of  human  life  and  society.  Yet  it  has  now  been  applied  to 
the  impelling  of  ships  and  large  boats  along  rivers  and  seas, 
in  opposition  to  both  wind  and  tide,  and  with  a  velocity 
which,  at  an  average,  exceeds  that  of  any  other  mode  of  con- 
veyance by  water.  And  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that 
this  invention  has  hitherto  attained  its  highest  state  of  perfec- 
tion ;  but  that  it  is  still  susceptible  of  such  improvements, 
both  in  point  of  expedition  and  of  safety,  as  may  render  it  by 
far  the  most  comfortable  and  speedy  conveyance  between  dis- 
tant lands,  for  transporting  the  volume  of  inspiration,  and  the 
heralds  of  the  gospel  of  peace,  to  "  the  ends  of  the  earth." 
By  the  help  of  his  compass,  the  mariner  is  enabled  to  steer 
his  course  in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  in  the  most  cloudy  days, 
and  in  the  darkest  nights,  and  to  transport  his  vessel  from  one 
end  of  the  world  to  another.  It  now  only  remains,  that  navi- 
gation be  rendered  safe,  uniform,  and  expeditious,  and  not  de- 
pendent on  adverse  winds  or  the  currents  of  the  ocean ;  and 
there  is  every  reason  to  expect,  as  the  art  of  propelling  vessels 
by  the  force  of  steam  proceeds  towards  perfection,  that  these 
desirable  objects  will  be  fully  attained.  Even  at  present,  as 
the  invention  now  stands,  were  a  vessel  fitted  to  encounter 
the  waves  of  the  Atlantic,  constructed  of  a  proper  figure  and 
curvature,  with  a  proper  disposition  of  her  wheels,  and  having 
room  where  fuel  can  be  stowed  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the 
voyage,  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  she  would  pass  from 
the  shores  of  Britain  to  the  coast  of  America,  in  less  than 
thirteen  days , — and,  even  at  eight  miles  an  hour,  the  voyage 
could  be  completed  in  little  more  than  fifteen  days  :  so  that 
intelligence  might  pass  and  repass  between  the  eastern  and 
western  Continents  within  the  space  of  a  single  month — a 
space  of  time  very  little  more  than  was  requisite,  eighty  years 
ago,  for  conveying  intelligence  between  Glasgow  and  London. 
The  greatest  distance  at  which  any  two  places  on  the  globe 
can  lie  from  each  other,  is  about  12,500  miles,  and  therefore, 
if  a  direct  portion  of  water  intervene  between  them,  this  space 
could  be  traversed  in  fifty-four  or  sixty  days.*     And,  if  the 

*  The  above  statements  were  written  in  1823,  when  the  first  edition  of 
this  work  was  pubHshcd,  and  were  then  considered  as  somewhat  extrava- 
gant anticipations,  which  were  scarcely  expected  to  be  reahzed,  at  least  in 
the  present  age.  It  is  not  exceeding  six  or  seven  years  since  one  of  our 
most  distinguished  philosophers  and  engineers,  Dr.  Lardner,  denounced 


STEAM  NAVIGATION.  307 

isthmus  of  Panama  which  connects  North  and  South  America, 
antt  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  which  separates  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  Red  sea,  were  cut  into  wide  and  deep  canals,  (wliich 
we  have  no  doubt  will  be  accomplished  as  soon  as  civilized 
nations  have  access  to  perform  operations  in  these  territories,) 
every  country  in  the  world  could  then  be  reached  from 
Europe,  in  nearly  a  direct  line;  or,  at  most,  by  a  gentle 
curve,  instead  of  the  long,  and  dangerous,  and  circuitous  route 
which  must  now  be  taken,  in  sailing  for  the  eastern  parts  of 
Asia,  and  the  north-western  shores  of  America.  By  this 
means,  eight  or  nine  thousand  miles  of  sailing  would  be 
saved  in  a  voyage  from  England  to  Nootka  sound,  or  the 
peninsula  of  California ;  and  more  than  six  thousand  miles, 
in  passing  from  London  to  Bombay  in  the  East  Indies  ;   and 


the  scheme  of  attempting  to  cross  the  Atlantic  by  means  of  steam  as  an 
enterprise  altogether  impracticable.  But  the  navigation  of  the  Atlantic, 
by  means  of  steam  vessels,  for  four  or  five  years  past,  has  been  regular, 
and  almost  as  common  as  with  ordinary  sailing  vessels  ; — and  the  rate  of 
motion  has  been  even  greater  than  what  we  anticipated.  The  Great 
Western  was  among  the  first  steam  vessels  that  crossed  the  Atlantic  from 
Britain  to  America,  in  1838,  and  accomplished  the  voyage,  in  safety,  in 
about  13  days,  having  on  board  above  a  hundred  passengers.  Since  that 
period  other  vessels,  as  the  Acadia,  Britannia,  Caledonia,  Columbia,  &,c., 
have  regularly  performed  voyages  to  and  from  the  shores  of  America  and 
Great  Britain,  and,  except  in  the  case  of  the  President,  they  have  all  been 
accomplished  without  any  serious  accidents, — so  that,  the  practicability  and 
the  utility  of  steam  navigation  across  the  ocean  may  now  be  considered  as 
fully  established.  Voyages  by  steam  are  likewise  now  regularly  performed 
to  Lisbon,  Cadiz,  and  along  the  Mediterranean,  as  far  as  Alexandria,  and 
from  Bombay  to  Suez  along  the  Arabian  and  the  Red  sea — and  therefore 
we  have  reason  to  expect  that,  ere  long,  even  the  wide  Pacific,  and  every 
other  sea  and  ocean  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  will  be  traversed  by  steam 
vessels,  promoting  a  rapid  intercourse  between  all  the  nations,  tribes,  and 
families  of  the  earth.  The  rate  of  motion  at  which  such  vessels  are  im- 
pelled across  the  Atlantic  may  be  deduced  from  the  following  facts.  The 
first  voyage  of  the  Britannia,  which  sailed  on  the  4th  of  July,  1840,  from 
Liverpool  to  Halifax,  was  accomplished  in  12  days,  10  hours ;  and  her  re- 
turn homeward  occupied  only  10  days.  The  outward  voyage  of  the 
Columbia,  which  sailed  from  Liverpool,  May  19th,  1842,  was  performed  in 
11  days,  22  hours,  and  her  voyage  home  from  Halifax  in  9  days,  17  hours. 
Her  voyage  from  Boston  in  the  United  States,  including  a  stoppage  of  6 
hours  at  Halifax  to  land  and  take  in  passengers  and  mails,  was  performed 
in  11  days,  6  hours,  from  that  city  to  Liverpool.  Of  28  voyages  of  the 
Acadia,  Britannia,  Caledonia,  and  Columbia,  performed  in  The  years, 
1840,  1841,  and  1842,  between  Liverpool  and  Hahfax— the  average  time 
employed  in  the  passage  is  found  to  be  as  follows: — Outward  voyage  to 
Halifax  13  days,  6  hours: — Homeward  to  Liverpool  11  days,  6  hours.  It 
thus  appears  that  intelligence  may  now  pass  and  repass  between  Britain 
and  the  continent  of  America  in  23  or  24  days,  or  httle  more  than  3  weeks, 
so  that  it  is  possible  a  person  might  receive  an  answer  to  a  commumcation 
sent  to  America  in  less  than  3^  weeks.  At  this  rate,  15.000  miles — or  the 
greatest  distance  between  any  two  places  on  the  globe  by  water,  might  be 
traversed  in  about  50  days. 


308  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

few  places  on  the  east  would  be  farther  distant  from  each 
other  by  water  than  15,000  miles;  which  space  might  be^tra- 
versed  at  the  rate  stated  in  the  preceding  note,  in  a  period  of 
about  fifty  days.* 

But  we  have  reason  to  believe,  that  when  this  invention, 
combined  with  other  mechanical  assistances,  shall  approxi- 
mate nearer  to  perfection,  a  much  more  rapid  rate  of  motion 
will  be  effected;  and  the  advantages  of  this,  in  a  religious,  as 
■well  as  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  may  be  easily  appre- 
ciated ;  especially  at  the  present  period,  when  the  Christian 
world,  now  aroused  from  their  slumbers,  have  formed  the 
grand  design  of  sending  a  Bible  to  every  inhabitant  of  the 
globe.  When  the  empire  of  the  prince  of  darkness  shall 
be  shaken  throughout  all  its  dependencies,  and  the  nations 
aroused  to  inquire  after  light,  and  liberty,  and  divine  know- 
ledge— intelligence  would  thus  be  rapidly  communicated  over 
every  region,  and  between  the  most  distant  tribes.  "  Many 
would  run  to  and  fro,  and  knowledge  would  be  increased." 
The  ambassadors  of  the  Redeemer,  with  the  oracles  of  Hea- 
ven in  their  hands,  and  the  words  of  salvation  in  their  mouths, 
would  quickly  be  transported  to  every  clime,  "  having  the 
everlasting  Gospel  to  preach  to  every  nation,  and  kindred,  and 
tongue,  and  people." 

Air  balloons. — Similar  remarks  may  be  applied  to  the 
invention  of  air  balloons.  We  have  heard  of  some  pious 
people  who  have  mourned  over  such  inventions,  and  lamented 
the  folly  of  mankind  in  studying  their  construction,  and 
witnessing  their  exhibition.  Such  dispositions  generally  pro- 
ceed from  a  narrow  range  of  thought,  and  a  contracted  view 
of  the  Divine  economy  and  arrangements  in  the  work  of  Re- 
demption. Though  the  perversity  of  mankind  has  often  ap- 
plied useful  inventions  to  foolish,  and  even  to  vicious  pur- 
poses, yet  this  forms  no  reason  why  such  inventions  should 
be  decried ;  otherwise,  the  art  of  printing,  and  many  other 
useful  arts,  might  be  regarded  as  inimical  to  the  human  race. 
We  have  reason  to  believe,  that  air  balloons  may  yet  be 
brought  to  such  perfection  as  to  be  applied  to  purposes  highly 
beneficial  to  the  progress  of  the  human  mind,  and  subservient, 
in  some  degree,  for  effecting  the  purposes  of  Providence  in 
the  enlightening  and  renovation  of  mankind.  For  this  pur- 
pose, it  is  only  requisite  that  some  contrivance,  on  chemical 
or  mechanical  principles,  be  suggested,  analogous  to  the  sails 
or  rudder  of  a  ship,  by  which  they  may  be  moved  in  any  di- 

*  See  Appendix,  Note  XI. 


AIR  BALLOOx^S.  309 

rection,  without  being  directed  solely  by  the  course  of  the 
wind ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  a  contrivance  is 
possible  to  be  effected.  It  requires  only  suitable  encourage- 
ment to  be  given  to  ingenious  experimental  philosophers,  and 
a  sufficient  sum  of  money  to  enable  them  to  prosecute  their 
experiments  on  an  extensive  scale.  To  the  want  of  such  pre- 
requisites, it  is  chiefly  owing,  that  the  hints  on  tliis  subject, 
hitherto  suggested,  bave  either  failed  of  success,  or  have  never 
been  carried  into  execution.  A  more  simple  and  expeditious 
process  for  filling  balloons  has  lately  been  effected, — the  use 
of  the  parachute^  by  which  a  person  may  detach  himself  from 
the  balloon,  and  descend  to  the  earth,  has  been  successfully 
tried, — the  lightning  of  heaven  has  been  drawn  from  the 
clouds,  and  forced  to  act  as  a  mechanical  power  in  splitting 
immense  stones  to  pieces, — the  atmosphere  has  been  analyzed 
into  its  component  parts,  and  the  wonderful  properties  of  the 
ingredients  of  which  it  is  composed,  exhibited  in  their  natu- 
ral state; — and  why,  then,  should  we  consider  it  as  at  all  im- 
probable, that  the  means  of  producing  a  horizontal  direction 
in  aerial  navigation  may  soon  be  discovered  .'  Were  this  ob- 
ject once  effected,  balloons  might  be  applied  to  the  purposes 
of  surveying  and  exploring  countries  hitherto  inaccessible, 
and  of  conveying  the  messengers  of  divine  mercy  to  tribes  of 
our  fellow-men,  whose  existence  is  as  yet  unknown. 

We  are  certain  that  every  portion  of  the  inhabited  world 
must  be  thoroughly  explored,  and  its  inhabitants  visited,  be- 
fore the  salvation  of  God  can  be  carried  fully  into  effect ;  and, 
for  the  purpose  of  such  explorations,  we  must,  of  course, 
resort  to  the  inventions  of  human  genius  in  art  and  science. 
Numerous  tribes  of  the  sons  of  Adam  are,  doubtless,  residing 
in  regions  of  the  earth  with  which  we  have  no  acquaintance, 
and  to  which  we  have  no  access  by  any  of  the  modes  of  con- 
veyance presently  in  use.  More  than  one  half  of  the  interior 
parts  of  Africa  and  Asia,  and  even  of  America,  are  wholly  un- 
known to  the  inhabitants  of  the  civilized  world.  The  vast 
regions  of  Chinese  Tartary,  Tibet,  Siberia,  and  the  adjacent  dis- 
tricts— the  greater  portion  of  Africa,  and  the  continent  of  New 
Holland — the  extensive  isles  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  New  Guinea, 
and  Japan,  the  territory  of  the  Amazons,  and  the  internal  parts 
of  North  America,  remain,  for  the  most  part,  unknown  and  un- 
explored. The  lofty  and  impassable  ranges  of  mountains,  and 
the  deep  and  rapid  rivers,  which  intervene  between  us  and 
many  of  those  regions,  together  with  the  savage  and  plunder- 
ing hordes  of  men,  and  the  tribes  of  ravenous  beasts,  through 
which  the  traveller  must  push  his  way — present  to  European 


310  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

adventurers,  barriers  which  they  cannot  expect  to  siirmonnt, 
by  the  ordinary  modes  of  conveyance,  for  a  lapse  of  ages.. 
But,  by  balloons  constructed  with  an  apparatus  for  directing 
their  motions,  all  such  obstructions  would,  at  once,  be  sur- 
mounted. The  most  impenetrable  regions,  now  hemmed  in 
by  streams  and  marshes,  and  lofty  mountains,  and  a  barbarous 
population,  would  be  quickly  laid  open ;  and  cities  and  na- 
tions, lakes  and  rivers,  and  fertile  plains,  to  which  we  are  now 
entire  strangers,  would  soon  burst  upon  the  view.  And  the 
very  circumstance,  that  the  messengers  of  peace  and  salvation 
descended  upon  such  unknoimi  jtribes  from  the  region  of  Ike 
clouds^  might  arouse  their  minds,  and  excite  their  attention 
and  regard,  to  the  message  of  Divine  mercy  which  they  came 
thither  to  proclaim.*  Such  a  scene  (and  it  may  probably  be 
realized)  would  present  a  literal  fulfilment  of  the  prediction 
of  '''•  angels  flying  through  the  midst  of''''  the  aerial  '•^  heaven^ 
having  the  everlasting  Gospel  to  preach  to  them  that  dwell 
upon  the  earth,  and  to  every  kindred  and  nation." 

That  the  attention  of  the  philosophical  world  is  presently 
directed  to  this  subject,  and  that  we  have  some  prospect  of 
the  views  above  suggested  being  soon  realized,  will  appear 
from  the  following  notice,  which  some  time  ago  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  London  scientific  journals  : — "A  prize  being 


*  In  this  point  of  view,  we  cannot  but  feel  the  most  poignant  regret  at 
the  conduct  of  the  Spaniards,  after  the  discovery  of  America,  towards  the 
natives  of  that  country.  When  those  untutored  people  beheld  the  ships 
which  had  conveyed  Columbus  and  his  associates  from  the  eastern  world, 
the  dresses  and  martial  order  of  his  troops,  and  heard  their  music,  and 
the  thunder  of  their  cannon,  they  were  filled  with  astonishment  and  won- 
der at  the  strange  objects  presented  to  their  view  ;  they  fell  prostrate  at 
their  feet,  and  viewed  them  as  a  superior  race  of  men.  When  Cortez 
afterwards  entered  the  territory  of  Mexico,  the  same  sentiment  of  rever- 
ence and  admiration  seemed  to  pervade  its  inhabitants.  Hnd  pure  Chris- 
tian motives  actuated  the  minds  of  these  adventurers,  and  had  it  been 
their  ruling  desire  to  communicate  to  those  ignorant  tribes  the  blessings 
of  the  Gospel  of  peace,  and  to  minister  to  their  external  comiort,  the  cir- 
cumstance now  stated  would  have  been  highly  favourable  to  the  success 
of  missionary  exenion,  and  would  have  led  them  to  listen  with  attention 
to  the  message  from  Heaven.  But,  unfortunately  for  the  cause  of  reli- 
gion, treachery,  lust,  cruelty,  selfishness,  and  the  cursed  love  of  gold,  pre- 
dominated over  every  other  feeling,  affixed  a  stigma  to  the  Christian  name, 
and  rendered  them  curses,  instead  of  blessings,  to  that  newly  discovered 
race  of  men.  It  is  most  earnestly  to  be  wished,  that,  in  future  expedi- 
tions in  quest  of  unknown  tribes,  a  few  intelligent  and  philanthropic  mis- 
sionaries were  apjiointed  to  direct  the  adventurers  in  their  n.oral  conduct 
and  intercourses  Vvith  the  pruple  they  visit,  in  order  that  nothing  incon- 
sistent with  Christian  piinc  ipje  make  its  appearance.  The  uniform  mani- 
festation of  Chrii-tian  bentvolence,  purity,  and  rectitude,  by  a  superior 
race  ot  men,  would  win  the  affertiuns  ol  a  rude  people  lar  more  effectually 
than  all  the  pomp  and  ensigns  of  military  parade. 


AIR  BALLOONS.  311 

offered  for  the  discovery  ol'aii  horizontal  direction  in  aerosta- 
tion, M.  Mingreli  of  Bologna,  M.  Pielripoli  of  Venice,  and  M. 
liCmber  of  Nuremberg,  have  each  assumed  the  merit  of  resolv- 
ing this  problem.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  one  of  these 
has  come  forward  to  establish,  by  practical  experiment,  the 
validity  of  his  claim  ;  but  a  pamphlet  has  lately  been  reprinted 
at  Paris  (first  printed  at  Vienna)  on  this  subject,  addressed  to 
all  the  learned  societies  in  Europe.  The  following  passage 
appears  in  the  work  :  '  Professor  Robertson  proposes  to  con- 
struct an  aerostatic  machine,  150  feet  in  diameter,  to  be  capa- 
ble of  raising  72,954  kilograms,  equivalent  to  149,037  lbs. 
weight,  (French).  To  be  capable  of  conveying  all  necessa- 
ries for  the  support  of  sixty  individuals,  scientific  characters, 
to  be  selected  by  the  academicians,  and  the  aerial  navigations 
to  last  for  some  months,  exploring  different  heights,  and  cli- 
mates. See,  in  all  seasons.  If,  from  accident  or  wear,  the  ma- 
chine, elevated  above  the  ocean,  should  fail  in  its  funclions, 
to  be  furnished  with  a  ship  that  will  ensure  the  return  of  the 
aeronauts.' " 

Of  late  years,  the  attention  of  several  scientific  gentlemen 
has  been  directed  to  the  improvement  of  aerial  navigation,  and 
it  is  the  opinion  of  many  that  the  problem  of  giving  to  bal- 
loons a  horizontal  direction  has  been,  in  some  measure,  solved. 
About  the  year  1837  some  plans  of  this  description  were  laid 
before  a  committee  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  an  association 
was  attempted  to  be  formed  for  exploring  the  continent  of 
Africa  by  means  of  a  large  balloon  which  was  to  be  con- 
structed for  this  special  purpose ;  but  after  the  projectors  had 
proceeded  a  certain  length,  the  scheme  was  allowed  to  drop, 
for  want  of  patronage  and  support.  In  the  year  1840,  Mr. 
Green,  the  most  celebrated  aeronaut  of  modern  times, — who 
has  performed  several  hundreds  of  aerial  voyages — proposed 
making  a  voyage  in  a  balloon  from  the  American  to  the  Euro- 
pean continent,  across  the  Atlantic.  In  order  to  convince  the 
scientific  public  of  the  practicability  of  his  propelling  or  di- 
recting a  balloon,  causing  it  to  ascend  or  descend,  without 
discharging  either  gas  or  ballast — and  in  a  tranquil  atmo- 
sphere, to  move  horizontally  and  in  any  direction — he  com- 
menced a  series  of  important  experiments,  at  the  Pohjtechnic 
Institution^  London,  which  excited  considerable  attention,  and 
created  a  great  sensation  among  the  curious  in  scientific  mat- 
ters. The  machinery  made  use  of  by  Mr.  Green  consisted  of 
two  propellers  attached  to  a  spindle — a  rudder — a  guide-line^ 
and  several  appendages.     The  propeller  appears  to  have  been 


312  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

somewhat  like  two  sails  of  a  wind-mill,  which  were  whirled 
round  with  a  rotary  motion,  and  which  were  intended  to  pro- 
duce an  effect  both  on  the  horizontal  progress  of  the  balloon 
and  likewise  in  elevating  and  depressing  it.*  The  practica- 
bility of  Mr.  Green's  plans  appears  to  have  been  admitted  by 
many  scientific  gentlemen ;  and  although  he  has  never  yet 
attempted  his  daring  aerial  excursion  across  the  Atlantic,  yet, 
it  is  well  known  that  he  performed,  along  with  Mr.  Mason,  in 
the  great  Nassau  balloon,  an  aerial  voyage  from  England 
across  the  German  sea  to  Wed  burg  in  Germany,  one  of  the 
most  daring  and  extensive  voyages  hitherto  attempted,  and 
which  was  accomplished  without  the  least  danger.  The  pos- 
sibdity  of  an  aerial  excursion  across  the  Atlantic  may  perhaps 
be  admitted;  but  its  expediency,  in  the  meantime,  may  justly 
be  called  in  question. 

As  the  invention  now  stands,  the  balloon,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  such  an  experienced  aeronaut  as  Mr.  Green,  might  be 
rendered  subservient  to  many  important  purposes,  particularly 
in  taking  a  general  survey  of  unknown  countries.  Suppose  a 
balloon,  properly  equipped  for  the  purpose,  were  to  be  ele- 
vated either  on  the  eastern  or  western  shores  of  Africa,  so  as 
to  pass  nearly  over  the  central  parts  of  that  continent, — by 
taking  advantage  of  the  monsoons  or  trade-winds,  which  blow 
for  a  certain  period  in  the  same  direction — the  general  aspect 
and  character  of  this  country,  with  which  we  are  at  present 
so  little  acquainted,  might  be  laid  open  to  view,  at  least  as  to 
its  more  prominent  and  general  features.  The  extent  of  its 
lakes — the  direction  and  magnitude  of  its  rivers — the  ranges 
of  mountains  with  which  it  is  diversified — its  deserts,  forests, 
and  cultivated  fields — the  position  and  magnitude  of  its  cities — 
the  characteristics  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  probable  amount 
of  population — with  several  other  particulars — might  all  be 
deduced  by  an  intelligent  aeronaut,  when  passing  across  such* 
a  country  at  a  proper  elevation,  besides  having  an  opportunity 
of  performing  a  variety  of  electric,  magnetic,  and  other  scien- 
tific experiments,  for  enlarging  our  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
ples and  processes  of  nature.  In  the  same  manner  the  Chinese 
empire — of  which  we  know  so  little — might  be  extensively 
surveyed,  and  our  knowledge  of  that  interesting  and  populous 
region  of  ihe  globe  rendered  more  definite  and  expansive.     In 

*  The  reader  will  find   an  account  of  Mr.  Green's  experiments   in  the 

PolylecJinic  Journal  tor  January  and  February,  1840,  and  Hkewise  in  the 

No.  of  Mirror  for  April,  &cc.,  1840,  vol.  35,  with  an  engraving  of  the 
proposed  balloon. 


AIR  BALLOONS.  313 

both  these  cases,  and  several  others,  the  course  of  the  periodi- 
cal winds  might  be  rendered  subservient  to  the  success  of  the 
enterprise. 

Should  any  one  be  disposed  to  insinuate,  that  the  views 
now  stated  on  this  subject  are  chimerical  and  fallacious,  I  beg 
leave  to  remind  them,  that  not  more  than  twenty  years  ago, 
the  idea  of  a  large  vessel,  without  oars  or  sails,  to  be  navigated 
against  the  wind  with  the  rapidity  of  twelve  miles  an  hour, 
would  have  been  considered  as  next  to  an  impossibility,  and 
a  mere  fanciful  scheme,  whicli  could  never  be  realized.  Yet 
we  now  behold  such  vehicles  transporting  whole  villages  to 
the  places  of  their  destination,  with  a  degree  of  ease,  comfort, 
and  expedition,  formerly  unknown,  and  even  crossing  in  safety 
the  wide  Atlantic  ocean.  And  little  more  than  fifty  years  have 
elapsed,  since  it  would  have  been  viewed  as  still  more  chime- 
rical to  have  broached  the  idea,  that  a  machine  might  be  con- 
structed, by  which  human  beings  might  ascend  more  than  two 
miles  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  fly  through  the 
region  of  the  clouds  at  the  rate  of  seventy  miles  an  hour, 
carrying  along  with  them  books,  instruments,  and  provisions. 
Yet  both  these  schemes  have  been  fully  realized,  and,  like 
many  other  inventions  of  the  human  intellect,  are  doubtless 
intended  to  subserve  some  important  ends  in  the  economy  of 
Divine  Providence.* 


*  Balloons  were  first  constructed  in  the  year  1783,  by  Messrs.  S.  &  J. 
Montgolfier,  paper  nvanufacturers  at  Annonay,  in  France.  A  sheep,  a 
cock,  and  a  duck,  were  the  first  animals  ever  carried  up  into  the  air,  by 
these  vehicles.  At  the  end  of  their  journey,  they  were  found  perfectly 
safe  and  unhurt,  and  the  sheep  was  even  feeding  at  perfect  ease.  The 
first  human  being  who  ascended  into  the  atmosphere  in  one  of  these  ma- 
chines was  M.  Pilatre  de  Rozier.  This  adventurer  ascended  from  amidst 
an  astonished  multitude  assembled  in  a  garden  in  Paris,  on  the  15th  Oc- 
tober, 1783,  in  a  balloon,  whose  diameter  was  48  feet,  and  its  height  about 
74  ;  and  remained  suspended  above  the  city  about  four  hours.  M.  Lunardi, 
an  ItaUan,  soon  after  astonished  the  people  of  Scotland  and  England,  by 
his  aerial  excursions.  Dr.  G.  Gregory  gives  the  following  account  of  his 
first  ascent  : — "  I  was  myself  a  spectator  of  the  flight  of  Lunardi,  and  I 
never  was  present  at  a  sight  so  interesting  and  sublime.  The  beauty  of 
the  gradual  ascent,  united  with  a  sentiment  of  terror  on  account  of  the 
danger  of  the  man,  and  the  novelty  and  grandeur  of  the  whole  appearance, 
are  more  than  words  can  express.  A  delicate  woman  was  so  overcome 
with  the  spectacle,  that  she  died  upon  the  spot  as  the  balloon  ascended  ; 
several  fainted  ;  and  the  silent  admiration  of  the  anxious  multitude  was 
beyond  any  thing  I  had  ever  beheld." 

Balloons  have  generally  been  made  of  varnished  silk,  and  of  the  shape 
of  a  globe  or  spheroid,  (see  fig.  30,)  from  thirty  to  fifty  feet  in  diameter. 
They  are  filled  with  hydrogen  gas,  which,  as  formerly  stated,  is  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  times  lighter  than  common  air:  and  they  rise  in  the 
atmosphere  on  the  same  principle  as  a  piece  of  cork  ascends  from  the 
bottom  of  .1  pnil  of  wafer.     The  aerial  travellers  arc  seated  in  a  basket 

27 


314 


CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 


Acoustic  tunnels. — By  means  of  the  inventions  just  now 
adverted  to,  when  brought  to  perfection,  mankind  may  be 
enabled  to  transport  themselves  to  every  region  of  the  globe, 

below  the  balloon,  which  is  attached  to  it  by  means  of  cords.  The_ 
parachute  (see  fig.  28)  is  an  invention,  by  which  the  voyager,  in  cases  ol 
alarm,  may  be  enabled  to  desert  his  balloon  in  mid-air,  and  descend 
without  injury  to  the  ground.  They  resemble  an  umbrella,  but  are  of  far 
greater  extent.  With  one  of  these  contrivances,  twenty -three  feet  in 
diameter,  M.  Garnerin,  having  detached  himself  from  his  balloon,  de- 
scended from  a  height  of  more  than  4000  feet,  and  landed  without  shock 
or  accident. 

The  following  representation  (fig.  30)  e.xhibits  a  view  of  Mr.  Green  s 
balloon,  when  he  ascended  from  St.  James'  Park,  London,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  coronation  of  George  IV.  The  form  of  the  balloon  was  nearly 
of  the  shape  of  a  pear  ;  it  was  composed  of  stripes  of  variegated  silk  ;  and 
over  this  was  thrown  an  envelope  of  net-work,  which,  passing  down, 
servfd  as  a  support  to  the  car  in  which  the  aeronaut  was  placed.  It  may 
give  the  reader  who  has  never  seen  a  balloon,  a  general  idea  of  its  form, 
and  of  the  mode  in  which  aerial  navigation  is  performed. 


F5g  28, 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


Figs.  28  and  29  represent  the  parachute  of  M.  Garnerin,  and  the  appa- 
ratus connected  with  it.  In  fig.  29  is  shown  a  cylindrical  box,  about  three 
teet  in  height  and  two  in  diameter,  which  was  attached  by  a  straight  pole, 
to  a  truck  or  disc  at  the  top.  and  from  this  was  suspended  a  large  sheet  ol 
Unen  somewhat  similar  to  an  umbrella.  M.  Garnerin  stood  in  the  box, 
and  the  i'orm  the  machine  assumed  on  his  descent  is  shown  in  fig.  28. 
When  first  cut  from  the  balloon,  it  descended  with  great  velocity,  and 
those  who  witnessed  its  progress  considered  his  destruction  inevitable  ;  but 
after  a  few  seconds,  the  canvass  opened  and  the  resistance  was  so  great, 
that  the  apparatus  diminished  in  its  speed,  till,  on  its  arrival  near  the  earth,  it 
was  not  p'leater  thrtn  would  have  resulted  from  leaping  a  height  of  two  feet. 


ACOUSTIC  TUNNELS.  315 

with  a  much  greater  degree  of  rapidity  than  has  hitherto  been 
attained.  By  the  help  of  the  microscope,  we  are  enabled  to 
contemplate  the  invisible  worlds  of  life,  and  by  the  telescope 
we  can  penetrate  into  regions  far  beyond  the  range  of  the  un- 
assisted eye.  By  the  arts  of  writing  and  printing  we  can 
communicate  our  sentiments,  after  a  certain  lapse  of  time,  to 
every  quarter  of  the  world.  In  the  progress  of  human  know- 
ledge and  improvement,  it  would  obviously  be  of  considerable 
importance,  could  we  extend  the  range  of  the  human  T^oice",  and 
communicate  intelligence  to  the  distance  of  a  thousand  miles, 
in  the  course  of  two  or  three  hours;  or  could  we  hold  an  oc- 
casional conversation  with  a  friend  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or 
thirty  miles.  From  experiments  which  have  been  lately  made, 
in  reference  to  the  conveyance  of  sound,  we  have  some  reason 
to  believe  that  such  objects  may  not  be  altogether  unattainable. 
It  has  been  long  known  that  wood  is  a  good  conductor  of  sound. 
If  a  watch  be  laid  on  the  one  end  of  a  long  beam  of  timber, 
its  beating  will  be  distinctly  heard,  on  applying  the  ear  to  the., 
other  end,  though  it  could  not  be  heard  at  the  same  distance 
through  the  air.  In  "Nicholson^s  Philosophical  .Tournal,"  for 
February,  1803,  Mr.  E.  Walker  describes  a  simple  apparatus, 
connected  with  a  speaking  trumpet,  by  means  of  which,  at 
the  distance  of  \1\  feet,  he  held  a  conversation  with  anothei 
in  whispers,  too  low  to  be  heard  through  the  air  at  that  dis- 
tance. When  the  ear  was  placed  in  a  certain  position,  the 
words  were  heard  as  if  they  had  been  spoken  by  an  invisible 
being  within  the  trumpet.  And  what  rendered  the  deception 
still  more  pleasing,  the  words  were  more  distinct,  softer,  and 
more  musical,  than  if  they  had  been  spoken  through  the  air. 

About  the  year  1750,  a  merchant  of  Cleves,  named  Jorissen, 
who  had  become  almost  totally  deaf,  sitting  one  day  near  a 
harpsichord  while  some  one  was  playing,  and  having  a  tobac- 
co-pipe in  ills  mouth,  the  bowl  of  which  rested  accidentally 
against  the  body  of  the  instrument,  he  was  agreeably  and  un- 
expectedly surprised  to  hear  all  the  notes  in  the  most  distinct 
manner.  By  a  little  reflection  and  practice,  he  again  obtained 
the  use  of  this  valuable  sense  :  for  he  soon  learned, — by  means 
of  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  one  end  of  which  he  placed  against 
his  teeth,  while  another  person  placed  the  other  end  on  his 
teeth, — to  keep  up  a  conversation,  and  to  be  able  to  under- 
stand the  least  whisper.  In  this  way,  two  persons  who  have 
stopped  their  ears  may  converse  with  each  other,  when  they 
hold  a  long  stick,  or  a  series  of  slicks,  between  their  teeth, 
or  rest  their  teeth  against  them.  The  effect  is  the  same,  if  the 
person  who  speaks  rests  the  stick  against  his  throat  or  his 


316  CHRISTIAN  rHILOSOPHER. 

breast,  or  when  one  rests  the  stick  which  he  holds  in  his 
teeth  against  some  vessel  into  which  the  other  speaks  ;  and 
the  effect  will  be  the  greater,  the  more  the  vessel  is  capable 
of  tremulous  motion.  These  experiments  demonstrate  the 
facility  with  which  the  softest  whispers  may  be  trasnmitted. 
Water,  too,  is  found  to  be  a  good  conductor  of  sound.  Dr, 
Franklin  assures  us,  that  he  has  heard  under  water,  at  the 
distance  of  half  a  mile,  the  sound  of  two  stones  struck  against 
each  other.  It  has  also  been  observed,  that  the  velocity  of 
sound  is  much  greater  in  solid  bodies,  than  in  the  air.  By  a 
series  of  experiments,  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
this  point,  Mr.  Chladni  found  that  the  velocity  of  sound,  in  cer- 
tain solid  bodies,  is  sixteen  or  seventeen  times  as  great  as  in  air. 
But  what  has  a  more  particular  bearing  on  the  object  hinted 
at  above  is,  the  experiments  lately  made  by  M.  Biot,  "  on  the 
transmission  of  sound  through  solid  bodies,  and  through  air, 
in  very  long  tubes."  These  experiments  were  made  by  means 
of  long  cylindrical  pipes,  which  were  constructed  for  conduits 
and  aqueducts,  to  embellish  the  city  of  Paris.  With  regard  to 
the  velocity  of  sound,  it  was  ascertained  that  "  its  transmission 
through  cast  iron  is  ten  and  a  half  times  as  quick  as  through 
air.  The  pipes  by  which  he  wished  to  ascertain  at  what  dis- 
tance sounds  are  audible  were  one  thousand  and  thirty-nine 
yards,  or  nearly  five  furlongs  in  length.  M.  Biot  was  stationed 
at  one  end  of  these  series  of  pipes,  and  Mr.  Martin,  a  gentle- 
man who  assisted  in  the  experiments,  at  the  other.  They 
heard  the  lowest  voice,  so  as  perfectly  to  distinguish  the 
words,  and  to  keep  up  a  conversation  on  all  the  subjects  of 
the  experiments.  "  1  Avished,"  says  M.  Biot,  "  to  determine 
the  point  at  which  the  human  voice  ceases  to  be  audible,  but 
could  not  accomplish  it :  M'ords  spoken  as  low  as  when  we 
whisper  a  secret  in  another's  ear,  were  heard  and  understood ; 
so  that  not  to  be  heard,  there  was  but  one  resource,  tliat  of 
not  speaking  at  all.  This  mode  of  conversing  with  an  invisi- 
ble neighbour  is  so  singular,  that  we  cannot  help  being  surprised, 
even  though  acquainted  with  the  cause.  Between  a  question 
and  answer,  the  interval  was  not  greater  than  was  necessary 
for  the  transmission  of  sound.  For  Mr.  Martin  and  me,  at  the 
distance  of  one  thousand  and  thirty  nine  yards,  this  time  was 
about  five  and  a  half  seconds."  Reports  of  a  pistol  fired  at 
one  end,  occasioned  a  considerable  explosion  at  the  other. 
The  air  was  driven  out  of  the  pipe  with  sufficient  force  to 
give  the  hand  a  smart  blow,  to  drive  light  substances  out  of 
it  to  the  distance  of  half  a  yard,  and  to  extinguish  a  candle, 
though  it  was  one  thousand  and  thirty-nine  yards  distant  from 


ACOUSTIC   TUNNELS. 


317 


the  place  where  the  pistol  was  fired.  A  detailed  account  of 
these  experiments  may  be  seen  in  JVicholson's  Phil  Jour,  for 
October,  1811.  Don  Gautier,  the  inventor  of  the  telegraph, 
suggested  also  the  method  of  conveying  articulate  sounds  to 
a  great  distance.  He  proposed  to  build  horizontal  tunnels, 
widening  at  the  remoter  extremity,  and  found  that,  at  the 
distance  of  four  hundred  fathoms,  or  nearly  half  a  mile,  the 
ticking  of  a  watch  could  be  heard  far  better  than  close  to  the 
ear.  He  calculated,  that  a  series  of  such  tunnels  would  con- 
vey a  message  nine  hundred  miles  in  an  hour. 

From  the  experiments  now  stated,  it  appears  highly  proba- 
ble that  sounds  may  be  conveyed  to  an  indefinite  distance.  If 
one  man  can  converse"  with  another  at  the  distance  of  nearly 
three  quarters  of  a  mile,  by  means  of  the  softest  ichlsper,  there 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they  could  hold  a  conversation 
at  the  distance  of  thirty  or  forty  miles,  provided  the  requisite 
tunnels  were  constructed  for  this  purpose.  The  latter  case 
does  not  appear  more  wonderful  than  the  former.  Were  this 
point  fully  determined  by  experiments  conducted  on  a  more 
extensive  scale,  a  variety  of  interesting  eftects  would  follow, 
from  a  practical  application  of  the  results.  A  person,  at  one 
end  of  a  large  city,  at  an  appointed  hour,  might  communicate 
a  message,  or  hold  a  conversation  with  his  friend  at  another ; 
friends  in  neighbouring,  or  even  in  distant  towns,  might  hold 
an  occasional  correspondence  by  articulate  sounds,  and  recog- 
nize each  other's  identity  by  their  tones  of  voice.  In  the  case 
of  sickness,  accident,  or  death,  intelligence  could  thus  be  in- 
stantly communicated,  and  the  tender  sympathy  of  friends 
immediately  exchanged.  A  clergyman  sitting  in  his  own  room 
in  Edinburgh,  were  it  at  any  time  expedient,  might  address  a 
congregation  in  Musselburgh  or  Dalkieth,  or  even  in  Glasgow. 
He  might  preach  the  same  sermon  to  his  own  church,  and  the 
next  hour  to  an  assembly  at  forty  miles  distant.  And  surely 
there  could  be  no  valid  objection  to  trying  the  effect  of  an 
invisible  preacher  on  a  Christian  audience.  On  similar  prin- 
ciples, an  apparatus  might  be  constructed  for  augmenting  the 
strength  of  the  human  voice,  so  as  to  make  it  extend  its  force 
to  an  assembled  multitude,  composed  of  fifty  or  a  hundred 
thousand  individuals  ;  and  the  utility  of  such  a  power,  when 
the  mass  of  mankind  are  once  thoroughly  aroused  to  attend 
to  rational  and  religious  instruction,  may  be  easily  conceived. 
Jn  short,  intelligence  respecting  every  important  discovery, 
occurrence,  and  event,  might  thus  be  communicated,  through 
tlie  extent  of  a  whole  kingdom,  within  the  space  of  an  hour 
after  it  had  taken  place. 

27* 


318  CHRISTIAN  rillLOSOPHER. 

Let  none  imagine  tliat  such  a  project  is  either  chimerical  or 
impossible.  M.  Biot's  experiment  is  decisive,  so  far  as  it  goes  ; 
that  tlie  softest  whisper^  without  any  diminution  of  its  intensity, 
may  be  communicated  to  the  distance  of  nearly  three  quarters 
of  a  mile ;  and  there  is  nothing  but  actual  experiment  wanting 
to  convince  us,  that  the  ordinary  tones  of  the  human  voice 
may  be  conveyed  to  at  least  twenty  times  that  distance.  We 
are  just  now  acting  on  a  similar  principle  in  distributing  illu- 
mination through  large  cities.  Not  above  forty  or  fifty  years 
ago,  the  idea  of  lighting  our  apartments  by  an  invisible  sub- 
stance, produced  at  ten  miles'  distance,  would  have  been  con- 
sidered as  chimerical,  and  as  impossible  to  be  realized,  as  the 
idea  of  two  persons  conversing  together,  by  articulate  sounds, 
at  such  a  distance.  It  appears  no  more  wonderful,  that  we 
should  be  able  to  hear  at  a  distance  of  five  or  six  miles,  than 
that  we  should  be  enabled  to  see  objects  at  that  distance  by 
the  telescope,  as  distinctly  as  if  we  were  within  a  few  yards 
of  them.  Both  are  the  effects  of  those  principles  and  laws 
which  the  Creator  has  interwoven  with  the  system  of  the  ma- 
terial world ;  and  when  man  has  discovered  the  mode  of  their 
operation,  it  remains  with  himself  to  apply  them  to  his  neces- 
sities. What  the  telescope  is  to  the  eye,  acoustic  tunnels 
would  be  to  the  ear  ;  and  thus,  those  senses  on  which  our  im- 
provement in  knowledge  and  enjoyment  chiefly  depends, 
would  be  gradually  carried  to  the  utmost  perfection  of  which 
our  station  on  earth  will  permit.  And  as  to  the  expense  of 
constructing  such  communications  of  sound,  the  tenth  part  of 
the  millions  of  money  expended  in  the  twenty-two  years'  war 
in  which  we  were  lately  engaged,  would  in  all  probability  be 
more  than  sufficient  for  distributing  them,  in  numerous  rami- 
fications, through  the  whole  island  of  Great  Britain.  Even 
although  such  a  project  were  partially  to  fail  of  success,  it 
would  be  a  far  more  honourable  and  useful  national  under- 
taking, than  that  which  now  occupies  the  attention  of  the 
despots  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  might  be  accom- 
plished with  far  less  expenditure,  either  of  blood  or  of  money. 
Less  than  the  fourth  part  of  a  million  of  pounds  would  be 
sufficient  for  trying  an  experiment  of  this  kind,  on  an  exten- 
sive scale ;  and  such  a  sum  is  considered  as  a  mere  item^ 
when  fleets  and  armies  are  to  be  equipped  for  carrying  destruc- 
tion through  sea  and  land.  When  will  the  war-madness  cease 
its  rage  ?  When  will  men  desist  from  the  work  of  destruc- 
tion, and  employ  their  energies  and  their  treasures  in  the  cause 
of  human  improvement.''  The  most  chimerical  projects  that 
w^ere  ever  suggested   by  the  most  enthusiastic  visionary,  are 


ELECTRIC   TELEGRAPHS.  319 

not  half  so  ridiculous  and  degrading  to  the  character  of  man, 
as  those  ambitious  and  despotic  schemes,  in  which  the  powers 
of  the  earth  in  all  ages  have  been  chiefly  engaged.  But  on 
this  topic  it  is  needless  to  enlarge,  till  more  extended  experi- 
ments shall  have  been  undertaken. 

Electric  telegraphs. — The  electric  and  galvanic  powers 
have  been  lately  employed  in  transmitting  telegraphic  signals 
through  wires  to  any  assignable  distance.  More  than  thirteen 
years  ago,  Sir  H.  Davy,  Dr.  Ritchie,  and  several  others,  formed 
the  idea  of  constructing  an  electrical  telegraph  ;  and  in  1837 
the  model  of  an  apparatus  for  this  purpose  was  exhibited  by 
Mr.  Alexander  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  Edinburgh.  Profes- 
sor Wheatstone,  of  King's  College,  London,  lately  made  con- 
siderable improvements  in  the  construction  of  these  instru- 
ments, particularly  in  the  reduction  of  tlie  number  of  wires 
requisite  in  such  an  apparatus.  The  general  principle  on  which 
such  an  operation  is  founded,  is  that  of  causing  the  galvanic 
current  to  deflect  a  needle  poised  on  a  centre ;  and,  by  certain 
arrangements,  the  needle  is  made  to  point  to  any  letter  on  a 
dial  plate.  Professor  Wheatstone's  apparatus  consists  of  two 
small  galvanic  troughs  or  batteries ;  four  lengths  of  copper 
wire  ;  an  object  resembling  a  brass  clock,  with  a  small  opening 
or  lid  on  the  surface  sufficient  to  show  a  single  letter  at  a 
time  ;  close  by  this  an  upright  pivot  of  brass  about  three  inches 
high,  having  a  circular  top  inscribed  with  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet all  round,  and  from  each  letter  a  spike  pointing  out- 
wards. The  whole  stands  on  a  table,  except  the  wires,  which 
being  four  miles  in  length,  and  warped  in  numberless  convo- 
lutions through  the  vaults  of  the  college,  are  observable  only 
at  their  extremities  in  connexion  wiih  the  apparatus.  The  gal- 
vanic property  generated  in  the  batteries  is  made  to  proceed 
along  the  wires,  and  in  its  passage  to  effect  the  mechanism  in 
the  apparatus  now  described.  The  letters  can  be  exposed  at 
the  rate  of  two  in  every  second.  A  gentleman  who  witnessed 
its  performance  says,  "  A  lady,  turning  the  capstan  with  her 
linger,  brought  into  view  the  word  London,  in  the  time  it 
could  be  uttered  letter  by  letter,  although  the  idea  had  to  travel 
through  four  miles  of  wire." 

The  capabilities  of  the  principle  of  this  instrument  have 
been  tested  on  the  line  of  the  Great  Western  Railway.  In 
September,  1839,  the  wires  of  the  electric  telegraph  were  car- 
ried to  Drayton,  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  from  London,  and 
the  experiment  was  attended  with  complete  success.  To  such 
a  question  as  the  following, — "  How  many  passengers  started 
from  Drayton  by  the  10  o'clock  train  ?"  the  answer  could  be 


320  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

transmitted  from  the  terminus  to  Drayton  and  back  in  less  than 
two  minutes.  The  wires  of  communication  pass  through  a 
hollow  iron  tube  about  an  inch  and  a  half  diameter,  which  is 
fixed  about  six  inches  above  the  ground  parallel  with  the  rail- 
way, and  about  two  or  three  feet  distant  from  it ;  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that,  by  this  time,  they  have  been  carried  forward  the 
whole  length  of  the  railway,  which  extends  to  Bristol,  a  dis- 
tance of  117  miles. 

In  transmitting  the  electric  influence  through  wires — how- 
ever great  the  distance — the  time  occupied  in  the  transmission 
is  nearly  the  same,  for  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  flies 
with  the  same  velocity  as  light^  whose  rate  of  motion  is  nearly 
two  hundred  thousand  miles  in  a  second.  Were  wires  extended 
from  Britain  to  China,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  America  on  the 
other,  intelligence  could  be  transmitted  to  those  regions  in  as 
short  a  time  as  in  conveying  it  across  a  garden  or  a  large  hall. 
It  is  hard  to  say  to  what  extent  signals  may,  in  point  of  fact, 
be  communicated,  in  this  way,  in  the  course  of  the  improve- 
ments which  are  now  going  forward.  Were  the  nations  of 
Europe  living  in  perfect  amity  and  peace,  and  in  a  friendly 
communication  with  each  other,  telegraphs  of  this  description 
might  be  ramified  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  conti- 
nent from  north  to  south,  and  from  east  to  west;  and  the  ex- 
pense of  constructing  them  would  be  but  a  slight  item  com- 
pared with  the  sums  expended  in  useless  parade,  in  warfare, 
and  in  schemes  of  folly.  They  might,  at  any  rate,  be  spread 
in  diflerent  directions  throughout  the  island  of  Great  Britain, 
or  at  least  along  the  great  thoroughfares  leading  towards  the 
metropolis  ;  and  ofiices  established  at  diflerent  stages  for  com- 
municating and  receiving  intelligence — with  prices  affixed  cor- 
responding to  the  distance  from  which  the  intelligence  is  con- 
veyed. Jt  is  easy  to  see  that  such  a  rapid  communication  of 
intelligence — in  numerous  instances,  which  our  limits  will  not 
permit  us  to  specify — might  be  highly  beneficial  to  the  inter- 
ests of  general  society. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  same  physical  principle  or  agent 
which  produces  the  forked  and  fire-ball  lightnings,  and  all  the 
dread  phenomena  of  a  violent  thunder-storm — which  rends  to 
pieces  the  sturdy  oak,  and  strikes  whole  herds  of  cattle  life- 
less to  the  ground — which  displays  its  terrific  energy  in  the 
awful  phenomena  of  volcanoes,  hurricanes,  and  earthquakes — 
that  the  same  agent  is  now,  by  human  art,  rendered  subservient 
to  the  conveyance  of  swift  intelligence  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  to  many  other  useful  purposes  in  society — and, 
perhaps,  ere  long,  its  destructive  energies  may  be  completely 


RAILWAYS.  321 

counteracted  by  the  contrivances  of  human  uigenuity,  when 
its  nature  and  properties  and  its  mode  of  operation  shall  be 
more  completely  unfolded.  And,  it  is  not  unlikely,  as  the  in- 
vestigations of  philosophy  proceed,  that  new  principles  may 
be  discovered  in  the  system  of  nature,  more  wonderful  than 
any  that  have  yet  come  within  the  reach  of  our  knowledge, 
which  may  both  enlarge  our  views  of  the  operations  of  the 
Creator,  and  be  applicable  to  manifold  beneficial  purposes  in 
the  economy  of  human  society. 

Railways. — The  mode  of  travelling  by  means  of  railways, 
which  has  been  lately  introduced  into  Great  Britain  and  many 
other  countries,  is  an  improvement  no  less  wonderful  and 
beneficial  to  society  than  that  of  steam  navigation,  and  promises 
to  promote  the  general  intercourse  of  mankind,  and  the  con- 
veyance of  political  and  commercial  intelligence  to  an  extent 
and  with  a  velocity  which  former  ages  could  never  have  anti- 
cipated. 

It  appears  that,  so  early  as  the  year  1676,  coals  were  carried 
from  the  mines  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  to  the  banks  of 
the  river,  by  laying  rails  of  timber  exactly  straight  and  parallel, 
on  which  large  carts  with  four  rollers  fitting  the  rails,  and 
drawn  by  horses,  could  convey  at  once  four  or  five  chaldrons 
of  coals.  About  a  century  afterwards,  an  iron  railroad  was 
constructed  at  the  Sheffield  colliery.  But  the  first  railway  re- 
sembling those  now  in  use,  as  a  public  thoroughfare  for  the 
conveyance  of  goods  and  passengers,  was  the  "•  Stockton  and 
Darlington  railway,"  which  was  completed  only  in  1825,  and 
was  the  first  which  was  attended  with  complete  success.  Seve- 
ral years,  however,  elapsed  before  steam  locomotive  engines 
were  adopted.  This  noble  triumph  of  art,  in  the  swift  con- 
veyance of  goods  and  passengers,  was  first  practically  exhibited 
at  the  opening  of  the  "  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway," 
on  the  15th  September,  1830,  when  it  was  found  that  trains  of 
carriages  could  be  conveyed  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  and  thirty 
miles  an  hour.  Since  that  period  railways  have  been  distributed 
throughout  almost  all  the  populous  districts  of  our  country. 

The  rails  on  which  the  wheels  of  the  engines  and  carriages 
move  are  all  made  of  iron.  At  first  it  was  supposed  that  mal- 
leable iron  rails  were  to  be  preferred;  but  it  is  now  understood 
that  cast-iron  rails,  if  properly  made,  will  endure  all  tlie  tear 
and  wear  to  which  they  are  in  general  subjected.  Each  indi- 
vidual rail  is  about  twelve  feet  in  length,  and  six  inches  in  depth 
at  the  two  ends.  Their  thickness  is  about  one  inch,  and  the 
upper  surface,  on  which  the  wheel  is  to  run,  about  two  inches, 
so  as  to  project  laterally  like   the  cross   top  of  the  letter  T. 


3-22 


CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 


They  are  pinned  together  at  their  extremities,  and  are  support- 
ed at  intervals  of  every  three  feet.  The  supporters  on  some 
lines  of  railroad  consist  of  sto?ie  sleepers  sunk  into  the  ground; 
but  it  is  generally  admitted  that  transverse  bars  of  wood  sunk 
in  the  ground  are  preferable,  as  both  lines  of  rail  are  thus  kept 
from  separating  or  shifting,  and  as  stone  sleepers  present  too 
unyielding  a  base  to  the  rolling  of  the  wheels,  jn  order  to 
keep  the  wheels  on  the  rails,  they  are  furnished  with  thin  edges 
which  dip  on  the  outside.  The  wheels  of  the  locomotive  have 
a  diameter  of  about  four  feet;  the  diameter  for  the  wagon  or 
carriage-wheels  is  generally  from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches. 
The  locomotive  is  now  generally  placed  upon  six  wheels  ;  the 
front  and  hind  pair  being  smaller  than  those  in  the  middle, 
these  middle  ones  being  the  wheels  upon  which,  by  the  action 
of  cranks  from  the  engine,  the  whole  mass  is  propelled.  A 
chimney  rises  in  front,  and  a  standing  place  behind  is  allotted 
for  the  engineer  who  conducts  and  regulates  the  machine.  The 
barrel-like  object  next  the  engineer  consists  of  a  furnace  or 
fire-box,  and  the  heat  generated  in  it  by  the  consumption  of 
coke,  is  conducted  thence  through  a  great  number  of  tubes  in 
the  cylinder,  and  finally  escapes  at  the  chimney.  By  means 
of  It'ver  handles  affecting  the  mechanism,  the  engineer  can  at 
pleasure  produce  or  stop  the  motion  as  effectually  as  a  coach- 
driver  could  set  off,  or  arrest  the  progress  of  his  horses.  Im- 
mediately behind  the  locomotive  is  a  carriage  called  the  tender^ 
which  is  loaded  with  fuel,  and  has  a  tank  round  its  sides  con- 
taining water.  The  weight  of  a  locomotive,  supplied  with  its 
proper  quantity  of  water  and  fuel,  is  about  twelve  tons.  When 
filled  with  water  and  fuel,  the  tender  weighs  about  seven  tons  ; 
it  can  carry  700  gallons  of  water,  and  eight  hundred  weight 
of  coke — which  will  form  a  supply  for  a  trip  of  thirty  or  forty 
miles. 

Fig.  31. 


The  expenses  incurred  in  the  construction  and  management 
of  railways  are  very  considerable.  All  inequalities  of  surface 
in  the  line  proposed  must  be  removed — low  parts  filled  up  by 
embankments — high  parts  reduced — eminences  which  it  would 


RAILWAYS.  323 

be  impossible  or  too  expensive  to  level,  must  be  perforated 
by  tunnels^  and  over  dells  and  rivers  viaducts  require  to  be 
thrown,  consisting,  in  some  cases,  of  numerous  arches.  Be- 
sides, a  previous  survey  must  be  made — the  land  over  which 
it  is  to  pass  must  be  purchased  sometimes  at  an  exorbitant 
price — an  act  of  parliament  must  be  procured — and  various 
petty  and  vexatious  oppositions,  arising  from  the  avarice  and 
obstinacy  of  landed  proprietors,  must  be  overcome,  which  not 
unfrequently  add  to  all  the  other  expenses.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that,  at  an  average,  ^630,000  per  mile  may  be  considered 
as  a  moderate  outlay  in  the  construction  of  railways  through- 
out most  parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  London  and  Birming- 
ham railway — a  line  extending  112  miles — cost  much  more; 
its  whole  expense  amounted  to  several  millions  of  pounds. 
The  least  expensive  railway  we  have  yet  heard  of  is  that  be- 
tween Dundee  and  Arbroath,  the  average  expense  of  which  per 
mile  is  estimated  not  to  exceed  £8000.  The  cost  of  a  loco- 
motive is  about  ^61700,  and  it  seldom  wears  longer  than  two 
years  without  undergoing  an  extensive  repair.  Ordinary  loco- 
motives evaporate  77  cubic  feet  of  water  per  hour ;  those  on 
the  Great  Western  railway  about  200  cubic  feet.  The  evapo- 
ration of  one  cubic  foot  per  hour  produces  a  mechanical  force 
of  nearly  two  horse  power;  consequently  we  may  ascertain 
the  power  of  a  locomotive  by  multiplying  by  2  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  which  it  evaporates  in  an  hour.  An  ordinary  sized 
locon7otive  exerts  a  power  of  150  horses ;  a  horse  upon  a 
common  road  cannot  draw  for  any  length  of  time  more  than 
fifteen  hundred  weight,  while  on  a  railway  it  will  pull  with 
equal  ease  ten  tons,  which  is  thirteen  times  the  amount ;  and 
therefore  the  power  of  a  locomotive  such  as  is  usually  em- 
ployed, is  equal  to  a  draft  of  1462  tons. 

The  railways  in  most  parts  of  Britain  consist  of  two  tracks, 
suitable  for  trains  going  in  opposite  directions  ;  in  America, 
Belgium,  and  other  places,  they  consist  generally  of  but  one 
track.  On  most  of  the  lines  there  are  slow  trains  for  goods 
and  second  class  passengers — fast  trains,  taking  only  first  and 
second  class  carriages — some  lines  have  mail  trains  which 
proceed  at  more  than  usual  speed,  and  stop  at  fewer  places  by 
the  wav.  The  first  class  carriages  are  covered — the  second 
class  carriages  are  open  at  the  sides — and  the  third  class 
carriages  are  entirely  open,  in  some  of  which  the  passengers 
are  obliged  to  stand  during  the  journey,  arising  from  a  prin- 
ciple of  avarice  in  the  proprietors,  and  a  foolish  design  of  com- 
pelling, if  possible,  the  lower  classes  to  select  the  first  and 
second  class  carriages.     The  carriages  for  goods  are  open  on 


324  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

trucks,  on  which  the  articles  are  piled  ;  and  for  cattle  there 
are  open  trucks  with  a  railing  round  the  sides.  All  the  car- 
riages in  a  train — amounting  in  some  cases  to  twenty  or  thirty 
— are  linked  one  to  the  other  by  strong  iron  hooks,  and  to 
prevent  them  from  shocks  against  each  other,  the  various  car- 
riages are  provided  with  projecting  rods  on  springs  cushioned 
at  the  outer  extremities.  From  one  hundred  to  a  thousand 
passengers  are  thus  conveyed,  at  one  time,  from  one  city  or 
town  to  another ;  and  it  is  a  universal  rule  that  no  servant  or 
officer  shall  on  any  account  take  a  fee  from  passengers,  on 
pain  of  instant  dismissal. 

About  fifty  railways  have  been  completed  in  the  united 
kingdom  of  Great  Britain  up  to  1842.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  principal  lines — in  England — the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  railway,  32  miles  in  length,  which  cost  £46,000 
per  mile;  the  London  and  Birmingham  railway,  112i  miles 
long,  connecting  the  metropolis  with  the  centre  of  England, 
in  which  are  several  long  and  expensive  tunnels,  and  which 
cost  above  j650,000  per  mile ;  the  Grand  Junction  railway, 
79  miles  in  length,  connecting  the  London  and  Birmingham 
line  to  that  of  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  and  also  to  a  railway 
proceeding  northward  to  Lancaster,  which  cost  £21,859  per 
mile,  forming  an  important  thoroughfare  obliquely  across  the 
country;  the  Manchester  and  Leeds  railway,  50  miles  in 
length;  the  Midland  Counties,  North  Midland  and  Great 
North  of  England  railways,  connecting  the  great  seats  of  trade 
in  Northumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire,  and  Derbyshire,  with 
the  London  and  Birmingham  line  ;  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle 
railway,  61  miles  long;  the  Great  Western  railway,  117  miles 
long,  which  cost  £53,241  per  mile,  and  which  connects 
London  with  Bristol  and  with  smaller  tributary  lines, 
opening  up  the  west  of  England;  the  South-western  railway, 
77  miles  long,  connecting  London  with  Southampton.  The 
principal  lines  of  railways  in  Scotland  are — The  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow  railway,  about  46  miles  long,  on  which  are 
several  beautiful  and  extensive  viaducts,  which  was  opened  in 
the  beginning  of  1842 ;  the  Glasgow  and  Ayr  railway,  about 
40  miles  long;  the  Glasgow,  Paisley,  and  Greenock,  22 J 
miles  long ;  the  Dundee,  Newtyle,  and  Cupar-Angus  railways, 
about  17  miles  long;  the  Dundee  and  Arbroath  railway,  17 
miles  in  length  ;  and  the  Arbroath  and  Forfar  railway,  15 
miles  long.  Besides  these,  several  others  are  projected,  to 
connect  Edinburgh  with  Newcastle,  on  the  one  hand,  and  with 
Dundee,  Montrose,  and  Aberdeen,  on  the  other.  And  we 
trust  the  period  is  not  far  distant,   when   every  part  of  our 


BAILWAYS.  325 

country  shall  be  intersected  with  these  cheap  and  expeditious 
modes  of  conveyance.  The  most  prosperous  of  all  the  lines 
is  that  of  the  London  and  Birmingham,  the  weekly  revenue  of 
which  is  upwards  of  £16,000;  the  weekly  revenue  of  the 
Grand  Junction,  which  joins  it,  is  £9000.  In  the  "Railway 
Magazine,"  July,  1842,  the  following  calculation  is  given  of 
a  late  weekly  return  of  forty  railways,  1431  miles  in  length. 
"Number  of  passengers  on  25  railways,  289,819;  conse- 
quently the  total  for  the  week,  on  the  whole,  must  be  about 
400,000.  The  receipts  for  passengers  on  39  railways,  .-€74, 
938,  15s.  6|d. ;  ditto  for  goods  on  33  railways,  £17,823,  4s. 
7Jd.;  total,  ^692,785,  Os.  l^d.  Tiiis  is  an  average  of  £64, 
Os.  Jd.  per  mile,  per  week.  The  traffic,  therefore,  is  at  the 
rate  of  about  four  millions  a  year,  and  carrying  fifteen  mil- 
lions of  passengers."* 

The  velocity  with  which  railway  trains  generally  proceed, 
is  from  twenty  to  twenty -five  miles  per  hour;  but  on  some  of 
the  English  railways,  it  is  much  more  rapid.  The  lines  upon 
which  the  trains  travel  with  the  greatest  speed  are  as  follows  : 
— Average  speed  exclusive  of  stoppages — JVorthcm  and  East- 
ern railway  36  miles  per  hour;  Great  Western  33;  London 
and  Brighton  30 ;  JVeivcaslJe  and  JVorth  Shields  30  ;  Mid- 
land counties  29 ;  JYorthland  29  ;  London  and  Birmingham 
27; — at  the  ordinary  rate  of  speed,  a  journey  from  London  to 
Liverpool  by  the  mail  train — a  distance  of  about  210  miles — 
is  perii)rmed  in  about  nine  hours ;  and  when  railways  shall  be 
extended  from  the  south  to  Edinburgh,  the  journey  from  that 
city  to  London  may  be  accomplished  in  less  than  eighteen 
hours ;  so  that  a  person  may  leave  Edinburgh  at  six  in  the 
morning,  and  take  supper  in  London  the  same  evening — a  jour- 
ney which,  not  long  ago,  occupied  nearly  a  fortnight. 

Travelling  on  railways  is  on  the  whole  attended  wiili  less 
danger  than  in  stage-coaches  or  any  other  mode  of  conveyance. 
The  personal  injuries  and  loss  of  life,  which  have  occurred 
chiefly  on  the  English  railways,  are,  without  almost  an  excep- 
tion, to  be  attributed,  either  to  the  ignorance  and  carelessness 
of  the  engine  drivers,  or  to  the  imprudence  and  recklessness 
of  those  who  have  been  the  victims  of  accidents.  Were  men 
of  superior  intelligence  and  prudence  always  employed  to  di- 
rect the  motions  of  the  trains,  and  were  the  public  at  large  to 
attend  to  the  restrictions  and  regulations  prescribed  in  reference 
to  railways,  almost  every  accident  might  be  prevented.  On  the 

*  The  number  of  passengers  booked  for  Edinburgh,  at  the  several  -st'^- 
lions  on  the  Edinburgh  and  lllasgow  railway,  on  the  9lli  of  Aui^ust,  1842 
— the  day  of  the  Highland  Society's  exhibition — amounted  to  4S83. 

28 


326  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

Dundee  and  Arbroath  railway,  which  has  been  in  operation 
for  four  years,  scarcely  an  accident  has  ever  occurred  to  any 
of  the  passengers,  and  those  few  which  have  happened  on  that 
line  were  entirely  owing  to  the  folly  and  imprudence  of  those 
who  were  the  victims. 

The  utility  of  railway  communication,  when  properly  con- 
ducted, must  be  obvious  to  all.  In  a  commercial  country,  such 
as  ours,  the  rapid  conveyance  of  goods  of  all  descriptions 
from  one  town  to  another  is  an  object  of  peculiar  importance. 
Even  in  agricultural  districts,  the  formation  of  railroads  has 
enabled  the  landed  proprietor  to  bring  to  a  high  state  of  culti- 
vation extensive  districts  of  land  which  would  otherwise  have 
remained  barren  and  useless.  But  such  advantages  are  as  no- 
thing, when  compared  with  the  increased  diffusion  of  useful 
knowledge  which  must  follow  from  a  cheap  and  rapid  con- 
veyance over  the  British  empire,  and  over  all  those  countries 
that  have  adopted  similar  modes  of  communication  and  trans- 
port. Man  is  thus  brought  into  juxta-position  with  his  fellow- 
men  ;  time  and  space  are  shortened,  and  cities  a  hundred  miles 
distant  may  be  considered  as  nearly  adjacent,  since  they  can 
be  reached  in  the  course  of  three  or  four  hours.  Friends,  re- 
latives, and  correspondents  can  thus  visit  each  other  though  at 
a  distance,  without  much  loss  of  time  or  money — communi- 
cate information,  and  interchange  "  brotherly  kindness  and  af- 
fection." During  the  summer  months,  those  confined  in  towns 
have  an  opportunity  of  taking  excursions  into  the  country,  for 
health  and  recreation,  without  any  serious  interference  with 
the  demands  of  business.  Letters,  newspapers,  and  periodicals 
of  all  descriptions,  can  be  conveyed  with  a  speed  which,  for- 
merly, could  neither  have  been  effected  nor  anticipated,  hi  cer- 
tain cases,  a  letter  may  be  written,  sent  through  the  post-office, 
and  delivered  at  tlie  distance  of  twenty  miles,  in  the  course  of 
a  single  hour.  From  Liverpool  a  letter  may  be  despatched  to 
London,  a  distance  of  more  than  200  miles,  and  an  answer 
received  in  the  course  of  the  same  day.  As  ignorance,  super- 
stition, and  foolish  prejudices  are  the  companions  of  those  who 
live  in  retired  districts,  and  seldom  go  beyond  the  view  of  the 
smoke  of  their  father's  chimney — so,  when  the  great  body  of 
our  fellow-men  have  an  opportunity  of  taking  extensive  ex- 
cursions through  the  country,  we  may  expect  that  their  minds 
will  be  expanded,  their  conceptions  enlarged,  and  their  views 
of  nature  and  of  human  society  rendered  more  definite  and 
extensive,  so  that  they  shall  be  enabled  to  take  in  ideas  and 
portions  of  knowledge  of  which  they  were  formerly  ignorant. 
"  Many  shall  run  to  and  fro,  and  knowledge  shall  be  increased." 


PRACTICAL  REMARKS.  327 

Besides,  the  frequent  intercourse  of  man  with  his  fellow-men 
of  every  grade  has  a  natural  tendency  to  promote  friendship, 
esteem,  and  mutual  affection.  Civilisation  can  alone  be  pro- 
moted by  the  frequent  social  intercourse  of  human  beings  ;  and 
wherever  this  intercourse  exists,  reciprocal  benefits  will  always 
ensue;  and  such  an  intercourse  among  all  ranks  is  now  facili- 
tated and  promoted  by  the  invention  and  formation  of  railways. 
It  is  likewise  obvious  that  Christianity  and  the  Christian 
virtues  may,  by  such  improvements  in  travelling,  be  promoted 
and  extended.  "As  in  water  face  answereth  to  face,  so  doth 
the  heart  of  man  to  man."  In  communicating  religious  in- 
struction, admonition,  and  reproof,  or  in  administering  comfort 
under  affliction,  in  most  instances,  the  presence  and  counte- 
nance of  a  friend,  and  the  living  voice — breathing  "  words  that 
burn,"  and  which  soothe  or  pierce  the  heart — generally  pro- 
duce a  deeper  and  more  permanent  impression,  where  personal 
intercourse  is  obtained,  than  the  same  sentiments  communi- 
cated by  letter.  "  For  as  iron  sharpeneth  iron,  so  a  man  sharp- 
eneth  the  countenance  of  his  friend."  We  can  also  conceive 
many  cases  in  which  the  labours  of  a  minister  of  religion,  and 
of  a  Christian  missionary,  may  be  greatly  facilitated  and  ren- 
dered successful  by  a  rapid  conveyance  from  one  place  to 
another,  and  where  missionary  and  other  philanthropic  asso- 
ciations would  be  more  numerously  attended  and  patronized, 
by  Christians  having  a  cheap  and  expeditious  conveyance  to  the 
places  in  which  they  are  held.  In  short,  were  such  modes  of 
travelling  introduced  into  every  country,  we  should  quickly 
hear  of  what  is  passing  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  learn  the 
aspect  of  the  Divine  dispensations  towards  all  nations  ;  we 
should  learn,  without  loss  of  time,  the  results  of  all  the  mis- 
sionary enterprises  which  have  been  undertaken  for  the  con- 
version and  renovation  of  the  heathen  world,  and  be  in  readi- 
ness to  send  forth,  by  a  speedy  course,  other  missionaries 
wherever  they  were  wanted,  to  spread  abroad  the  fame  of  the 
Redeemer,  and  the  knowledge  of  that  revelation  which  points 
out  the  way  to  a  blessed  immortality. 

In  the  preceding  sketches  I  have  presented  a  few  specimens 
of  the  relation  which  the  inventions  of  human  ingenuity  bear 
to  religious  objects.  I  intended  to  have  traced  the  same  rela- 
tion in  several  other  instances',  in  the  invention  of  the  electri- 
cal machine,  the  air-[)ump,  mills,  clocks,  and  watches,  gas- 
lights chemical  fumigations,  inventions  for  enabling  us  to  walk 
upon  the  water,  to  prevent  and  alleviate  the  dangers  of  ship- 
wreck, &c.  But  as  my  prescribed  limits  will  not  permit  further 
enlargement,  I  trust  that  what  has  been  already  staled  will  be 


328  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

sufTicient  to  establish  and  illustrate  my  general  position.  From 
this  subject  we  may  learn — 

1.  Tliat  the  various  processes  of  art,  and  the  exertions  of 
human  ingenuity,  are  mider  the  special  direction  of  Him  who 
arranges  all  things  "  according  to  the  counsel  of  his  will."  As 
"  tlie  king's  iieart  is  in  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  and  as  the  rivers 
of  waters  he  turns  it  whithersoever  he  pleases,"  so  all  the  va- 
ried schemes  and  movements  of  the  human  mind,  the  disco- 
veries of  science,  and  the  diversified  experiments  of  mechanics, 
chemists,  and  philosophers,  are  directed  in  such  channels  as 
may  issue  in  the  accomplishment  of  His  eternal  purposes,  in 
respect  to  the  present  and  future  condition  of  the  inhabitants 
of  our  world.  This  truth  is  also  plainly  taught  us  in  the  re- 
cords of  inspiration.  ^'  Doth  the  ploughman  plough  all  day  to 
sow  ?  Doth  he  open  and  break  the  clods  of  his  ground  ? 
When  he  hath  made  plain  the  face  thereof,  doth  he  not  cast 
abroad  the  vetches,  and  scatter  the  cummin,*  and  cast  in  the 
wheat  in  the  principal  [place],  and  the  barley  in  the  appointed 
place,  and  the  rye  in  its  proper  place.?  For  his  God  dolh  in- 
struct him  to  discretion.!  and  doth  teach  him.  This  also  cometh 
forth  from  the  Lord  of  hosts,  who  is  wonderful  in  counsel, 
and  excellent  in  working."  Agriculture  has,  by  most  nations, 
been  attributed  to  the  suggestions  of  Deity ;  for  "  every  good 
and  perfect  gift  cometh  down  from  the  Father  of  lights."  It 
is  he  who  hath  taught  men  to  dig  from  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  gold,  and  to  apply  them  to 
useful  purposes  in  social  life  ;  and  who  hath  given  them  "  wis- 
dom and  understanding"  to  apply  the  animal  and  vegetable 
productions  of  nature  to  the  manufacture  of  cloths,  linen, 
muslin,  and  silk,  for  the  use  and  the  ornament  of  man.  For 
"all  things  are  of  God."  "  Both  riches  and  honour  come  from 
him,  and  he  reigneth  over  all,  and  in  his  hand  is  power  and 
might,  and  in  his  hand  it  is  to  make  great,  and  to  give  strength 
to  all."  When  the  frame  of  the  Mosaic  tabernacle  and  all  its 
curious  vessels  were  to  be  constructed,  the  mind  of  Bezaleel 
"■  was  tilled  with  the  spirit  of  God,  in  wisdom  and  understand- 
ing, and  in  knowledge,  and  in  all  manner  of  workmanship,  to 
devise  curious  works  in  gold,  and  in  silver,  and  in  brass." 
And  when  the  fabric  of  the  New  Testament  church  is  to  he 
reared,  and  its  boundaries  extended,  artificers  of  every  descrip- 
tion, adequate  for  carrying  on  the  different  parts  of  the  work, 
are  raised  up,  and  inspired  with  the  spirit  of  their  respective 
departments — some   with    the  spirit  of  writing,  printing,  and 

*  Vetches  is  a  kind  of  seed  frequently  sown  in  Judea,  for  the  use  of  cat- 
tle ;  and  cummin  is  the  seed  of  a  plant  somewhat  like  fennel. 


PRACTICAL  REMARKS.  329 

publishing;  some  with  the  spirit  of  preaching,  lecturing,  and 
catechizing ;  some  with  the  spirit  of  fortitude,  to  make  bold 
and  daring  adventures  into  distant  barbarous  climes ;  and 
others  with  the  spirit  of  literature,  of  science,  and  of  the  me- 
chanical aris — all  acting  as  pioneers  "  to  prepare  the  way  of 
the  Lord,"  and  as  builders  for  carrying  forward  and  complet- 
ing the  fabric  of  the  Christian  church. 

2.  All  the  mechanical  contrivances  to  which  I  have  ad- 
verted, all  the  discoveries  of  science,  and  all  the  useful  inven- 
tions of  genius  which  may  hereafter  be  exhibited,  ought  to  be 
viewed  as  preparing  the  way  for  the  millennial  era  of  the 
church,  and  as  having  a  certain  tendency  to  the  melioration  of 
the  external  condition  of  mankind  during  its  continuance.  We 
are  certain,  from  the  very  nature  of  things,  as  well  as  from 
scriptural  prediction,  that,  when  this  period  advances  towards 
the  summit  of  its  glory,  the  external  circumstances  of  this 
worhrs  population  will  be  comfortable,  prosperous,  and 
greatly  meliorated,  beyond  what  they  have  ever  been  in  the 
days  that  are  past — "  Then  shall  the  earth  yield  her  increase, 
and  God,  even  our  own  God,  shall  bless  us."  "  Then  shall 
he  give  the  rain  of  thy  seed,  that  thou  shalt  sow  the  ground 
withal;  and  bread  of  the  increase  of  the  earth,  and  it  shall  be 
fat  and  plenteous ;  in  that  day  shall  thy  cattle  feed  in  large 
pastures.  The  oxen  likewise,  and  the  young  asses  that  ear 
the  ground,  shall  eat  savoury  provender,  which  hath  been 
winnowed  with  the  shovel  and  with  the  fan."  "  And  the 
inhabitant  shall  not  say,  I  am  sick."  "They  shall  build 
houses  and  inhabit  them;  and  they  shall  plant  vineyards, 
and  eat  the  fruit  of  them.  They  shall  not  build,  and  an- 
other inhabit;  they  shall  not  plant,  and  another  eat:  for 
as  the  days  of  a  tree  are  the  days  of  my  people^  and  mine 
elect  shall  long  enjoy  the  work  of  their  hands.  They  shall 
not  labour  in  vain,  nor  bring  forth  for  trouble ;  for  they  are 
the  seed  of  the  blessed  of  the  Lord,  and  their  offspring  with 
them."  "  The  seed  shall  be  prosperous  ;  the  vine  shall  give 
her  fruit,  and  the  ground  shall  give  her  increase,  and  the 
lieavens  shall  give  their  dew."  "•  The  evil  beasts  shall  cease 
out  of  the  land  :  and  they  shall  sit  every  man  under  his  vine, 
and  under  his  fig-tree  ;  and  none  shall  make  him  afraid."  "  For 
wars  shall  cease  to  the  ends  of  the  world  ;  and  the  know- 
ledge of  the  Lord  shall  cover  the  earth,  as  the  waters  cover 
the  sea."*     Diseases  will  be,  in  a   great  measure,   banished 

*  Psalm  Ixvii,  6;  Isaiah,  xxx,  23,  24;  xxxiii,  24;  Ixv,  21-23;  Zech., 
viii,  12  ;  Micah,  iv,  4,  &-c. 

28* 


330  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOTHER. 

from  the  world,  and  the  life  of  man  extended  far  beyond  its 
present  duration — agriculture  will  be  brought  to  perfection — 
commodious  habitations  erected  for  the  comfortable  accom- 
modation of  all  ranks — cities  built  on  elegant  and  spacious 
plans,  adapted  to  health,  ornament,  and  pleasure  ;  divested  of 
all  the  lillh,  and  darkness,  and  gloom,  and  narrow  lanes,  which 
now  disgrace  the  abodes  of  men — roads  will  be  constructed 
on  improved  principles,  with  comfortable  means  of  retreat  for 
shelter  and  accommodation  at  all  seasons  ;  and  conveyances 
invented  for  the  ease,  and  safety,  and  rapid  conveyance  of 
persons  and  property  from  one  place  to  another.  Either  the 
climates  of  the  earth  will  be  meliorated  by  the  universal  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil,  so  that  storms  and  tempests,  thunders  and 
lightnings,  shall  no  longer  produce  their  present  ravages  ;  or 
chemical  and  mechanical  contrivances  will  be  invented  to 
ward  off  their  destructive  effects.  The  landscape  of  tlie  earth 
will  be  adorned  with  vegetable  and  architectural  beauty; 
and,  instead  of  horse-racing,  demoralizing  plays,  routs  and 
masquerades,  boxing  and  bull-fights — artificial  displays  of 
scenery  will  be  exhibited,  more  congenial  to  the  dignity  of 
rational,  renovated,  and  immortal  minds.  For  "the  know- 
ledge of  the  Lord,"  and  the  "  beauties  of  holiness,"  will  per- 
vade men  of  all  ranks  and  ages,  "  from  the  least  even  to  the 
greatest."* 

Now,  as  we  have  no  reason  to  expect  any  miraculous  inter- 
ference^ we  must  regard  the  past  and  the  future  useful  inven- 
tions of  philosophy  and  mechanics,  as  having  a  bearing  on 
this  glorious  period,  and  a  tendency  to  promote  the  improve- 
ment and  the  felicity  of  those  who  shall  live  during  this  era 
of  Messiah's  reign.  If  diseases  are  to  be  generally  abolished, 
it  will  be  owing  to  the  researches  of  the  scientific  physician 
in  discovering  certain  antidotes  against  every  disorder,  and  to 

*  The  various  circumstances  above  stated,  may  be  considered  as  the 
vafural  results  of  a  state  of  society  on  which  the  hght  of  science  and  of 
revelation  has  diffused  its  full  influence,  and  where  the  active  powers  of 
the  human  mind  are  invariably  directed  by  the  pure  principles  and  pre- 
cepts of  Christianity.  That  the  duration  of  human  life,  at  the  era  referred 
to,  will  be  extended  beyond  its  present  boundary,  appears  to  be  intimated 
i ;  some  of  the  passages  above  quoted,  particularly  the  following  : — "  As 
the  days  of  a  tree  shall  he  the  dai/s  of  my  people,  and  mine  elect  shall  lo7ig 
enjoy  the  work  of  their  hands.''  And  if^  the  life  of  man  will  be  thus  pro- 
tracted to  an  indefinite  period,  it  will  follow,  that  those  diseases  which  now 
prey  upon  the  human  frame,  and  cut  short  its  vital  action,  will  be  in  a  great 
measure  extirpated.  Both  these  effects  may  be  viewed  (without  supposing 
any  miraculous  interference)  as  the  natural  consequence  of  that  happiness 
and  equanimity  which  will  flow  from  the  practice  of  Christian  virtues, 
from  the  enlargement  of  our  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  nature,  and 
from  the  physical  enjoyments  which  such  a  state  of  society  will  furnish. 


MILLENNIAL  ERA.  331 

the  practice  of  temperance,  meekness,  equanimity,  and  every 
other  mean  of  preserving  the  vigour  of  the  animal  frame.  For 
vicious  passions  and  pursuits  are  the  source  of  numerous  dis- 
orders which,  along  with  the  anxieties,  perplexities,  and  re- 
morse which  accompany  them,  gradually  prey  upon  the 
human  frame,  and  cut  siiort  the  period  of  human  existence  — 
while  the  regular  exercise  of  faith,  love,  hope,  joy,  and  other 
Christian  graces  has  an  evident  tendency  to  promote  both 
health  and  longevity.  If  the  earth  is  to  produce  its  treasures 
in  abundance,  and  with  little  labour,  it  will  be  owing  in  part 
to  the  improvement  of  agricultural  science,  and  of  the  instru- 
ments by  whicli  its  operations  are  conducted.  If  the  light- 
nings of  heaven  shall  no  longer  prove  destructive  to  man  and 
to  tlie  labours  of  his  hands,  it  will  be  effected  either  by  ma- 
chinery for  drawing  off  the  electricity  of  a  stormy  cloud,  or 
by  the  invention  of  thunder-guards^  which  shall  alFord  a  com- 
plete protection  from  its  ravages.  In  these,  and  numerous 
other  instances,  the  inventions  of  men,  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Spirit  of  Wisdom,  will  have  a  tendency  to  remove  a  great 
part  of  the  curse  which  has  so  long  hung  over  our  sinful 
world.  And  since  the  inventions  of  human  skill  and  ingenuity 
for  the  melioration  of  mankind,  and  for'^e  swift  conveyance 
of  intelligence,  have  of  late  years  been  rapidly  increasing,  at 
tl{§  same  time  when  the  Christian  world  is  roused  to  increased 
exertions  in  disseminating  the  Scriptures  throughout  all  lands, 
when  general  knowledge  is  increasingly  diffused,  and  when 
the  fabric  of  superstition  and  despotism  is  shaking  to  its  founda- 
tions,— these  combined  and  simultaneous  movements  seem 
plainly  to  indicate,  that  the  auspicious  era  is  fast  hastening  on, 
when  "  the  glory  of  Jehovah  shall  be  revealed,  and  all  flesh 
shall  see  it  together,"  when  "  righteousness  and  praise  shall 
spring  forth  before  all  nations,"  and  when  "  holiness  to  the 
Lord,"  shall  be  inscribed  on  all  the  pursuits,  and  implements, 
and  employments  of  men. 

Lastly,  if  the  remarks  suggested  above  be  well  founded,  we 
may  conclude,  that  the  mechanical  and  philosophical  inven- 
tions of  genius  are  worthy  of  the  attentive  consideration  of 
the  enlightened  Cliristian,  particularly  in  the  relation  they 
have  to  the  accomplishment  of  religious  objects.  lie  should 
contemplate  the  experiments  of  scientific  men,  not  as  a  waste 
of  time,  or  the  mere  gratification  of  an  idle  curiosity,  but  as 
embodying  the  germs  of  those  improvements,  by  whicli  civili- 
sation, domestic  comfort,  knowledge,  and  moral  principle, 
may  be  diffused  among  the  nations.  To  view  such  objects 
with  apathy  and  indifference,  as  beneath  the  regard  of  a  reli- 


332 


CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 


gious  character,  argues  a  weak  and  limited  understanding,  and 
a  contracted  view  of  the  grand  operations  of  a  superintending 
Providence. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SCRIPTURAL    DOCTRINES  AND  FACTS  ILLUSTRATED    FROM  THE 
SYSTEM  OF  NATURE.* 

Without  spending  time  in  any  introductory  observations 
on  this  subject,  it  may  be  remarked  in  general, 

I. —  That  scientific  knowledge^  or  an  acquaintance  with  the 
systetn  of  nature^  may  frequently  serve  as  a  guide  to  the 
true  interpretation  of  Scripture. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  universal  principle,  that  there  can 
be  no  real  discrepancy  between  a  just  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  the  facts  of  physical  science;  and  on  this  principle 
the  following  canon  is  founded,  which  may  be  considere(i>as 
an  infallible  rule  for  Scripture  interpretation,  namely, —  That 
no  interjiretation  of  Scripture  ought  to  he  admitted  which  is 
inconsistent  with  any  icell  authenticated  facts  in  the  material 
world.  By  well  authenticated  facts.,  I  do  not  mean  the  theories 
of  philosophers,  or  the  deductions  they  may  have  drawn  from 
them,  nor  the  confident  assertions  or  plausible  reasonings  of 
scientific  men  in  support  of  any  prevailing  system  of  natural 
science;  but  those  facts  which  are  universally  admitted,  and 
the  reality  of  which  every  scientific  inquirer  has  it  in  his 
power  to  ascertain  ;  such  as,  that  the  earth  is  not  an  extended 
plane,  but  a  round  or  globular  body,  and  that  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  when  converged  to  a  focus  by  a  large  convex  glass,  will 
set  fire  to  combustible  substances.  Such  facts,  when  ascer- 
tained, ought  to  be  considered  as  a  revelation  from  God,  as 
well  as  the  declarations  of  his  word.  For  they  make  known 
to  us  a  portion  of  his  character,  of  his  plans  and  his   opera- 

■*  Under  this  head  it  was  originally  intended  to  embrace  an  elucidation 
of  a  considerable  variety  of  the  facts  recorded  in  the  sacred  history,  aiid 
of  the  allusions  of  the  inspired  writers  to  the  system  of  nature  ;  but  as  the 
volume  has  already  swelled  beyond  the  limits  proposed,  I  am  reluctantly 
compelled  to  confine  myself  to  the  illustration  of  only  two  or  three  topics. 


SCRIPTURAL  FACTS  ILLUSTRATED.  333 

lions.  This  rule  may  be  otherwise  expressed  as  follows: — 
IV here  a  passags  of  Scripture  is  of  doubtful  meanings  or  capa- 
hle  of  dijfere.nt  interpretations^  that  inlcrpretalion  ought  to  be 
preferred  ichich  will  best  agree  vrith  ths  established  discoveries 
of  science.  For,  since  the  Author  of  revelation  and  the 
Author  of  universal  nature  is  one  and  the  same  Infinite  Being, 
there  must  exist  a  complete  harmony  between  the  revelations 
of  his  word,  and  the  facts  or  relations  which  are  observed 
in  the  material  universe.  To  suppose  the  contrary  would  be 
to  suppose  the  Almighty  capable  of  inconsistency  ;  a  supposi- 
tion which  would  go  far  to  shake  our  confidence  in  the  theology 
of  nature,  as  well  as  of  revelation.  If,  in  any  one  instance, 
a  record,  claiming  to  be  a  revelation  from  heaven,  were  found 
to  contradict  a  well  known  fact  in  the  material  world;  if,  for 
example,  it  asserted  in  express  terms,  to  be  literally  understood, 
that  the  earth  is  a  quiescent  body  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
or  that  the  moon  is  no  larger  than  a  mountain — it  would  be  a 
fair  conclusion,  either  that  the  revelation  is  not  Divine — or 
that  the  passages  embodying  such  assertions  are  interpolations 
— or  that  science,  in  reference  to  these  points,  has  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  truth.  The  example,  we  are  aware,  is  inappli- 
cable to  the  Christian  revelation,  which  rests  securely  on  its 
own  basis,  and  to  which  science  is  gradually  approximating,  as 
it  advances  in  the  amplitude  of  its  views,  and  the  correctness 
of  its  deductions ;  but  it  shows  us  how  necessary  it  is,  in  in- 
terpreting the  word  of  God,  to  keep  our  eye  fixed  upon  his 
works ;  for  we  may  rest  assured,  that  truth  in  the  one  will 
always  correspond  with  fact  in  the  other. 

To  illustrate  the  rule  now  laid  down,  an  example  or  two 
may  be  stated.  If  it  be  a  fact,  that  geological  research  has 
ascertained  that  the  materials  of  the  strata  of  the  earth  are  of 
a  more  ancient  date  than  the  Mosaic  account  of  tlie  com- 
njencement  of  the  present  race  of  men — the  passages  in  the 
first  ciiapter  of  Genesis,  and  other  parts  of  Scripture,  which 
refer  to  the  origin  of  our  world,  must  be  explained  as  con- 
veying the  idea,  that  the  earth  was  then  merely  arranged  into 
its  pi-esent  form  and  order,  out  of  the  materials  which  pre- 
viously existed^  and  which  had  been  created  by  the  Almighty 
at  a  prior  period  in  duration.  For  Moses  nowhere  asserts, 
that  the  materials  of  our  globe  were  created  or  brought  into 
existence  out  of  nothing,  at  the  time  to  which  his  history 
refers;  but  insinuates  the  contrary.  "For  the  earth,"  says 
he,  prior  to  its  present  constitution,  "  ?^fl.s  without  form  and 
void,"  &c.  Again,  if  it  be  a  fact  tliat  the  universe  is  inde- 
finitely extended,  that,  of  many  millions  of  vast  ghjbes  which 


334  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

diversify  the  voids  of  space,  only  two  or  three  have  any  im- 
mediate connexion  with  the  earth — then  it  will  appear  most 
reasonable  to  conclude,  that  those  expressions  in  the  Mosaic 
liislory  of  the  creation,  which  refer  to  the  creation  of  the  Mxed 
stars,  are  not  to  be  understood  as  referring  to  the  ii7ne  when 
they  were  brought  into  existence,  as  if  they  had  been  created 
about  the  same  lime  with  our  earth;  but,  as  simply  declaring 
the  fact,  that,  at  what  period  soever  in  duration  they  were 
created,  they  derived  their  existence  from  God.  Thai,  they 
did  not  all  commence  their  existence  at  that  period,  is  demon- 
strable from  the  fact,  that,  within  the  space  of  2000  years  past, 
and  even  within  the  space  of  the  last  two  centuries,  new  stars 
have  appeared  in  the  heavens,  which  previously  did  not  exist 
in  the  concave  of  the  firmament;  which,  consequently,  have 
been  created  since  the  Mosaic  period  ;  or,  at  least,  had  under- 
gone a  change  analogous  to  that  which  took  place  in  our 
globe,  when  it  emerged  from  a  chaotic  state,  to  the  form  and 
order  in  which  we  now  behold  it.  Consequently,  the  phrase, 
''God  rested  from  all  his  works,"  must  be  understood,  not 
absolutely,  or  in  reference  to  the  whole  system  of  nature,  but 
merely  in  relation  to  our  world  ;  and  as  importing,  that  the 
Creator  then  ceased  to  form  any  new  species  of  beings  on  the 
terraqueous  globe.  The  same  canon  will  direct  us  in  the  in- 
terpretation of  tiiose  passages  which  refer  to  the  last  judgement, 
and  the  destruction  of  the  present  constitution  of  our  globe. 
When,  in  reference  to  these  events,  it  is  said,  that  ^''  the  stars 
shall  fall  from  heaven,"  that  "  the  powers  of  heaven  shall  be 
shaken,"  and  that  *■'  the  earth  and  the  heaven  shall  flee  away," 
our  knowledge  of  the  system  of  nature  leads  us  to  conclude, 
either  that  such  expressions  are  merely  metaphorical,  or  that 
they  describe  only  the  appearance^  not  the  reality  of  things. 
For  it  is  impossible  that  the  stars  can  ever  fall  to  the  earth, 
shice  each  of  them  is  of  a  size  vastly  superior  to  our  globe, 
and  could  never  be  attracted  to  its  surface,  without  unhinging 
tlie  laws  and  the  fabric  of  universal  nature.  The  appearance^ 
however,  of  the  "  heaven  fleeing  away,"  would  be  produced, 
should  the  eartli's  diurnal  rotation,  at  that  period,  be  suddenly 
stopped,  as  will  most  probably  happen ;  in  which  case,  all 
nature,  in  this  sublunary  system,  would  be  thrown  into  con- 
fusion, and  the  heavens,  with  all  their  host,  would  appear  to 
flee  away. 

Now,  the  scientific  student  of  Scripture  alone  can  judiciously 
apply  the  canon  to  whicli  1  have  adverted  ;  he  alone  can  ap- 
preciate its  utility  in  the  interpretation  of  the  sacred  oracles ; 
for  he  knows  the  facts  which  the  philosopher  and  the  astrono- 


DEPRAVITY  OF  MAN.  335 

mer  have  ascertained  to  exist  in  the  system  of  nature;  from 
the  vvant  of  which  information,  many  divines,  whose  com- 
ments on  Scripture  have,  in  other  respects,  been  judicious, 
have  displayed  tlieir  ignorance,  and  fallen  into  egregious  blun- 
ders, when  attempting  to  explain  the  first  chapters  of  Genesis, 
and  several  parts  of  the  book  of  Job — which  have  tended  to 
bring  discredit  on  the  oracles  of  heaven. 

II. —  The.  system  of  nature,  confirms  and  illustrates  the  scrip- 
tural doctrine  of  the  DEPRAVITY  OF  MAN. 

In  the  preceding  parts  of  this  volume,  I  have  stated  several 
striking  instances  of  Divine  benevolence,  which  appear  in  the 
constructioi\of  the  organs  of  the  animal  system,  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  earth,  tlie  waters,  and  the  atmosphere,  and  in 
the  variety  of  beauties  and  sublimities  which  adorn  the  face  of 
nature ;  all  which  proclaim,  in  language  which  can  scarcely  be 
mistaken,  that  the  Creator  has  a  special  regard  to  the  happi- 
ness of  his  creatures.  Yet  the  Scriptures  uniformly  declare, 
that  man  has  fallen  from  his  primeval  state  of  innocence,  and 
has  violated  the  laws  of  his  Maker;  that  "his  heart  is  deceit- 
ful above  all  things,  and  desperately  wicked  ;"  and  that  "  de- 
struction and  misery  are  in  his  ways."  Observation  and  ex- 
perience also  demonstrate,  that  a  moral  disease  pervades  the 
whole  human  family,  from  the  most  savage  to  the  most  civilized 
tribes  of  mankind ;  which  has  displayed  its  virulence  in  those 
wars  and  devastations  which  have,  in  all  ages,  convulsed  the 
world ;  and  which  daily  displays  itself  in  those  acts  of  in- 
justice, fraud,  oppression,  malice,  tyranny,  and  cruelty,  which 
are  perpetrated  in  every  country,  and  among  all  the  ranks  even 
of  civilized  life.  That  a  world  inhabited  by  moral  agents  of 
this  description,  would  display,  in  its  physical  constitution, 
certain  indications  of  its  Creator's  displeasure,  is  what  we 
should  naturally  expect,  from  a  consideration  of  those  attributes 
of  his  nature  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Accordingly  we 
find  that,  amidst  all  the  evidences  of  benevolence  which  our 
globe  exhibits,  there  are  not  wanting  certain  displays  of  "  the 
wrath  of  heaven  against  the  ungodliness  and  unrighteousness 
of  men,"  in  order  to  arouse  them  to  a  sense  of  their  guilt,  and 
to  inspire  them  with  reverence  and  awe  of  that  Being  whom 
they  have  offended.  The  following  facts,  among  many  others, 
may  be  considered  as  corroborating  this  position. 

In  the  first  place,  the  present  state  of  the  interior  strata  of 
the  -earth  may  be  considered  as  a  presumptive  evidence,  that  a 
moral  revolution  has  taken  place  since  man  was  placed  upon 
the  globe.    When  we  penetrate  into  the  interior  recesses  of  the 


336  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

earth,  we.  find  its  diflerent  strata  bent  in  the  most  irregular 
forms;  sometimes  lying  horizontally,  sometimes  projecting 
upwards,  and  sometimes  downwards,  and  thrown  into  confu- 
sion ;  as  if  some  dreadful  concussion  had  spread  its  ravages 
through  every  part  of  the  solid  crust  of  our  globe.  This  is 
visible  in  every  region  of  the  earth.  Wherever  the  miner  pene- 
trates among  his  subterraneous  recesses,  wherever  the  fissures 
and  caverns  of  the  earth  are  explored,  and  wherever  the 
mountains  lay  bare  their  rugged  clifls,  the  marks  of  ruin,  con- 
vulsion, and  disorder,  meet  the  eye  of  the  beholder.  Evidences 
of  these  facts  are  to  be  found  in  the  records  of  all  intelligent 
travellers  and  geologists  who  have  visited  Alpine  districts,  or 
explored  the  subterraneous  regions  of  the  earth ;  of  which  I 
have  already  stated  a  few  instances  in  the  article  geology. — 
These  facts  seem  evidently  to  indicate,  that  the  earth  is  not 
now  in  the  same  state  in  which  it  originally  proceeded  from 
the  hand  of  its  Creator ;  for  such  a  scene  of  disruption  and 
derangement  appears  incompatible  with  that  order,  harmony, 
and  beauty,  which  are  apparent  in  the  other  departments  of 
nature.  VVe  dare  not  assert,  that  such  terrible  convulsions 
took  place  by  chance,  or  independent  of  the  M'ill  of  the  Crea- 
tor ;  nor  dare  we  insinuate,  that  they  were  the  effects  of  a  ran- 
dom display  of  Almighty  power;  and,  thei-efore,  we  are  ne- 
cessarily led  to  infer,  that  a  moral  cause,  connected  with  the 
conduct  of  the  rational  inhabitants  of  the  globe,  must  have 
existed,  to  warrant  so  awful  an  interposition  of  Divine  power; 
for  the  fate  of  the  animated  beings  which  then  peopled  the 
earth,  was  involved  in  the  consequences  which  must  have  at- 
tended this  terrible  catastrophe.  The  volume  of  revelation  on 
this  point  concurs  with  the  deductions  of  reason,  and  assigns 
a  cause  adequate  to  wai'rant  the  production  of  such  an  extr-a- 
ordinary  effect.  "  The  wickedness  of  man  was  great  upon 
the  earth;  the  earth  was  filled  with  violence  ;  every  pur- 
pose and  desire  of  man's  heart  was  only  evil  continually." 
Man  had  frustrated  the  end  of  his  existence;  the  earth  was 
lurned  into  a  habitation  of  demons  ;  the  long  period  to  which 
his  life  was  protracted,  only  served  to  harden  him  in  his  wick- 
edness, and  to  enable  him  to  cany  his  diabolical  schemes  to 
their  utmost  extent,  till  the  social  state  of  the  human  I'ace  be- 
came a  scene  of  unmixed  depravity  and  misery.  And  the  phy- 
sical effects  of  the  punishment  of  this  univei'sal  defection  from 
God  are  presented  to  our  view  in  every  land,  and  will  remain 
to  all  ages,  as  a  visible  memorial  that  man  has  rebelled  against 
the  authority  of  his  Maker.*  , 

*  It  is  not  meant  here  to  insinuate  that  all  the  dislocations  and  irregu- 
larities found  in  the  strata  of  the  earth  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  action  of 


DEPRAVITY  OF    MAN.  337 

2.  The  existence  of  volcanoes^  and  the  terrible  ravages  they 
produce^  bear  testimony  to  the  state  of  man  as  a  depraved  in- 
telligence. A  volcano  is  a  mountain,  generally  of  an  immense 
size,  from  whose  summit  issue  fire,  smoke,  sulphur,  and  tor- 
rents of  melted  Iava.|  Previous  to  an  eruption,  the  smoke, 
which  is  continually  ascending  from  the  crater^  or  opening  in 
the  top,  increases  and  shoots  up  to  an  immense  height;  forked 
lightning  issues  from  the  ascending  column;  showers  of  ashes 
are  thrown  out  to  the  distance  of  forty  or  fifty  miles;  volleys 
of  red-hot  stones  are  discharged  to  a  great  height  in  the  air; 
the  sky  appears  thick  and  dark ;  the  luminaries  of  heaven  dis- 
appear; and  these  terrible  foreboings  are  accompanied  with 
tliunder,  lightning,  frequent  concussions  of  the  earth,  and  dread- 
ful subterraneous  bellowings.  When  these  alarming  appear- 
ances have  continued  sometimes  four  or  five  months,  the  lava 
begins  to  make  its  appearance,  either  boiling  over  the  top,  or 
forcing  its  way  through  the  side  of  the  mountain.  This  fiery 
deluge  of  melted  minerals  rolls  down  the  declivity  of  the 
mountain,  forming  a  dismal  flaming  stream,  sometimes  fourteen 
miles  long,  six  miles  broad,  and  200  feet  deep.  In  its  course 
it  destroys  orchards,  vineyards,  corn-fields,  and  villages ;  and 
sometimes  cities,  containing  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  have 
been  swallowed  up  and  consumed.  Several  other  phenomena, 
of  awful  sublimity,  sometimes  accompany  these  eruptions.  In 
i\\e  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  in  1794,  a  shock  of  an  earthquake 
was  felt;  and,  at  the  same  instant,  a  fountain  of  bright  fire, — 
attended  with  the  blackest  smoke,  and  a  loud  report, — was 
seen  to  issue,  and  to  rise  to  a  great  height  from  the  cone  of 
the  mountain;  and  was  soon  succeeded  by  fifteen  other  fiery 
fountains,  all  in  a  direct  line,  extending  for  a  mile  and  a  half 
downwards  This  fiery  scene  was  accompanied  with  the 
loudest  thunder,  the  incessant  reports  of  which,  like  those  of 
a  numerous  heavy  artillery,  were  attended  by  a  continued  hol- 
low murmur,  similar  to  that  of  the  roaring  of  the  ocean  during 

the  deluffo ;  but  it  can  scarcely  be  called  in  question,  that  certain  traces 
of  the  effects  of  this  catastrophe  are  to  be  found  in  most  countries,  'i'he 
simple  fact  recorded  in  revehition,  that  "the  fountains  of  the  great  deep 
were  broken  up,  and  the  flood-gates  of  the  heavens  opened" — that  "  the 
srorm  of  rain  continued  upon  the  earth  forty  days  and  forty  nights,"  and 
that  the  earth  was  covered  with  water  for  nearly  the  space  of  a  whole  year 
— could  not  but  produce  a  very  sensible  and  extensive  effect  upon  the  solid 
parts  of  the  globe,  though  it  may  be  difficult  in  some  instances  to  distin- 
guish some  of  the  effects  produced  by  Noah's  flood  from  those  which  vvere 
the  result  of  previous  catastrophes.  At  any  rate,  the  sacred  historian  is 
explicit  in  declaring  it  was  "because  the  wickedness  of  man  was  great, 
that  "  a  flood  of  waters  was  brought  upon  the  earth." 
t  See  p.  146. 

29 


338  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

a  violent  storm.  The  houses  in  Naples,  at  seven  miles'  dis- 
tance, were  for  several  hours  in  a  constant  tremour ;  the  bells 
ringing,  and  doors  and  windows  incessantly  rattling  and  shak- 
ing. Tiie  murmur  of  tiie  prayers  and  lamentations  of  a  nu- 
merous population  added  to  the  horrors  of  the  scene.  All 
travellers  who  have  witnessed  these  eruptions  seem  to  be  at  a 
loss  to  find  words  sufficiently  emphatic  to  express  the  terrors 
of  the  scene.  "  One  cannot  form  a  juster  idea,"  says  Bishop 
Berkley,  *•'  of  the  noise  emitted  by  the  mountains,  than  by 
imagining  a  mixed  sound  made  up  of  the  raging  of  a  tempest, 
the  murmur  of  a  troubled  sea,  and  the  roaring  of  thunder  and 
artillery,  confused  altogether.  Though  we  heard  this  at  the  dis- 
tance of  twelve  miles,  yet  it  was  very  terrible,''''  In  1744,  the 
flames  of  Cotopaxi,  in  South  America,  rose  3000  feet  above 
the  brink  of  the  crater,  and  its  roarings  where  heard  at  the  dis- 
tance of  six  hundred  miles.  ^^  At  the  port  of  Guayaquil,  150 
miles  distant  from  the  crater,"  says  Humboldt,"  we  heard,  day 
and  night,  the  noise  of  this  volcano,  like  continued  discharges 
of  a  batterv,  and  we  distinguished  these  tremendous  sounds 
even  on  the  Pacific  ocean." 

The  most  terrific  and  extraordinary  volcano  yet  known  is 
that  of  KiRAUEA,  lately  discovered  in  Hawaii,  one  of  the  Sand- 
wich islands.  When  the  crater  of  this  volcano  first  bursts 
upcm  the  sight,  there  is  an  appearance  presented  of  an  immense 
plain  below,  fifteen  or  sixteen  miles  in  circumference,  and  from 
two  to  four  hundred  feet  below  its  original  level,  covered  whh 
hillocks  of  lava,  and  vast  floods  of  burning  matter  in  a  state 
of  terrific  ebullition,  moving  to  and  fro  its  fiery  surge  and 
flamino-  billows.  Mr.  Ellis,  who  beheld  this  volcano,  states 
that,  around  the  edge,  or  from  the  surface  of  the  burning  lake, 
there  arose  no  fewer  than  fifty-one  conical  islands  of  varied 
form  and  size,  containing  as  many  craters.  Twenty-two  were 
constantly  emitting  columns  of  gray  smoke  or  pyramids  of 
brilliant  flame,  and  several  of  these  at  the  same  time  vomited 
from  their  ignited  mouths  streams  of  lava  which  rolled  in 
blazing  torrents  down  their  black  indented  sides  into  the  boil- 
ing mass  below.  The  roar  and  noise  emitted  from  these  several 
craters,  resemble  the  sounds  of  a  mighty  steam-engine — a 
whole  lake  ofjire  appearing  in  the  distance — billow  after  billow 
tossing  its  monstrous  bosom  in  the  air,  and  throwing  forth  its 
fiery  spray  to  the  height  of  forty  or  fifty  feet, — forming  a  scene 
most  awfully  grand  and  terrific — flames  bursting  forth  from 
the  largest  cone,  red-hot  stones,  cinders,  and  ashes  propelled 
to  a  mighty  height  with  immense  violence,  and  appalling 
floods  of  lava  boiling  down  the  sides  over  the  surrounding 


DEPRAVITY  OF  MAN.  339 

scoriae.  Mr.  Siewart,  and  a  party  from  the  Blonde  frigate, 
visited  this  volcano  in  1825.  The  following  is  only  a  small 
part  of  his  description.  "  At  night  splendid  illuminations  were 
lighted  up — the  volcano  began  roaring  and  labouring  with  re- 
doubled activity.  The  confusion  of  noises  was  prodigiously 
gieat — rolling  from  one  end  of  the  crater  to  the  other,  some- 
times seeming  to  be  immediately  under  us,  when  a  sensible 
tremour  of  the  ground  took  place,  and  then  again  rushing  to  the 
farther  end  with  incalculable  velocity.  The  whole  air  was 
filled  with  tumult,  and  soon  after  flames  burst  from  a  large 
cone  near  which  we  had  been  in  the  morning.  Red-hot  stones, 
cinders,  and  ashes  were  also  propelled  to  a  great  height  with 
immense  violence,  and  shortly  after,  the  molten  lava  came 
boiling  up,  and  flowed  down  the  sides  of  the  cone,  and  over 
the  surrounding  scoria,  in  two  beautiful  streams,  glittering  with 
indescribable  brilliance.  At  the  same  time,  a  whole  lake  of 
fire  opened  in  a  more  distant  part — this  could  not  have  been 
less  than  two  miles  in  circumference ;  and  its  action  was  more 
horribly  sublime  than  any  thing  I  ever  imagined  to  exist, 
even  in  the  ideal  visions  of  unearthly  things." — This  fiery 
volcano  of  Kirauea,  the  largest  of  which  we  have  any  record, 
dwindles  into  insignificance,  when  we  think  of  the  probable 
subterranean  fires  immediately  beneath  the  whole  of  these  and 
other  South  Sea  islands.  The  whole  of  Hawaii  (Owyhee) 
covering  a  space  of  4000  square  miles,  is  a  complete  mass  of 
lava  or  other  volcanic  matter  in  various  stages  of  decomposi- 
tion. Perforated  with  innumerable  apertures  in  the  shape  of 
craters,  it  forms  a  hollow  cone  over  one  vast  furnace,  situated 
in  the  heart  of  a  stupendous  submarine  mountain  rising  from 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  When  we  contemplate  such  awful  and 
overwhelming  phenomena,  the  workmanship  of  Him  who  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  earth,  and  who  superintends  the  opera- 
tion of  all  its  elementary  principles,  we  have  reason  to  ex- 
claim, "  Let  the  nations  say  unto  God,  how  terrible  art  thou  in 
thy  works!  Let  all  the  earth  fear  Jehovah;  let  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  world  stand  in  awe  of  him !" 

The  ravages  produced  by  volcanoes  are  in  proportion  to 
the  terror  they  inspire.  In  the  eruption  of  Etna  in  1689,  the 
stream  of  lava  destroyed,  in  forty  days,  the  habitations  of 
27,000  persons;  and,  of  20,000 'inhabitants  of  the  city  of 
Catania,  only  3000  escaped.  In  the  year  79,  the  celebrated 
cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  completely  over- 
whelmed and  buried  under  ground  by  an  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius, and  the  spots  on  which  they  stood  remained  unknown 
for  1600  years.     Since  that  period  about  forty  eruptions  have 


340  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

taken  place,  each  of  them  producing  the  most  dreadful  ra- 
vages. But  the  volcanoes  of  Asia  and  America  are  still  more 
terrible  and  destructive  than  those  of  Europe.  The  volcanic 
mountain  Pichincha,  near  Quito,  caused,  on  one  occasion,  the 
destruction  of  35,000  inhabitants.  In  the  year  1772,  an  erup- 
tion of  a  mountian  in  the  island  of  Java  destroyed  forty  vil- 
lages, and  several  thousands  of  the  inhabitants ;  and  in  Octo- 
ber, 1822,  eighty-eight  hamlets,  and  above  2000  persons,  were 
destroyed  in  the  same  island,  by  a  sudden  eruption  from  a  new 
volcano.  The  eruption  from  Tomboro,  in  the  island  of  Sum- 
bawa,  in  1815,  was  so  dreadful,  that  all  the  Moluccas,  Java, 
Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  to  the  distance  of  a  thousand  miles  from 
the  mountain,  felt  tremulous  emotions,  and  heard  the  report  of 
explosions.  In  Java,  at  the  distance  of  340  miles,  the  clouds 
of  ashes  from  the  volcano  produced  utter  darkness. 

Volcanoes  are  more  numerous  than  is  generally  imagined. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  world,  from  the 
icy  shores  of  Kamtscatka  to  the  mountains  of  Patagonia. 
Humboldt  enumerates  forty  volcanoes  constantly  burning,  be- 
tween Cotopaxi  and  the  Pacific  ocean  ;  twenty  have  been  ob- 
served in  the  chain  of  mountains  that  stretches  along  the 
Kamtschatka  :  and  many  of  them  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Phi- 
lippines, the  Moluccas,  the  Cape  de  Verd,  the  Sandwich,  the 
Ladrone,  and  other  islands  in  the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans. 
It  is  stated,  in  vol,  6th  of  Supp.  to  Encyc.  Brit.,  that  about  205 
volcanoes  are  known,  including  only  those  which  have  been 
active  within  a  period  to  which  history  or  tradition  reaches. 
Europe  contains  14;  and,  of  the  whole  number,  it  is  com- 
puted that  107  are  in  islands,  and  98  on  the  great  continents. 

Can  we  then  suppose,  that  so  many  engines  of  terror  and 
destruction,  dispersed  over  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  are  con- 
sistent with  the  conduct  of  a  benevolent  Creator  towards  an 
innocent  race  of  men  ?  If  so,  we  must  either  admit  that  the 
Creator  had  it  not  in  his  power,  when  arranging  our  terrestrial 
system,  to  prevent  the  occasional  action  of  these  dreadful 
ravagers;  or,  that  he  is  indifferent  to  the  happiness  of  his 
innocent  offspring.  The  former  admission  is  inconsistent 
with  the  idea  of  his  omnipotence,  and  the  latter,  with  the  idea  of 
universal  benevolence.  It  is  not,  therefore,  enthusiasm,  but 
the  fairest  deduction  of  reason  to  conclude,  that  they  are  indi- 
cations of  God's  displeasure  against  a  race  of  transgressors 
vyho  have  apostatized  from  his  laws. 

3.  The  same  reasoning  will  apply  to  the  ravages  produced 
by  earthquakes.  Next  to  volcanoes,  earthquakes  are  the 
jnost  terrific  phenomena  of  nature,  and  are  even  far  more  de- 


DEPRAVITY  OF  MAN.  341 

structive  to  man,  and  to  the  labours  of  his  hands.  An  earth- 
quake, which  consists  in  a  sudden  motion  of  the  earth,  is 
generally  preceded  by  a  rumbling  sound,  sometimes  like  that 
of  a  number  of  carriages  driving  furiously  along  the  pave- 
ment of  a  street,  sometimes  like  the  rushing  noise  of  a  mighty 
wind,  and  sometimes  like  the  explosions  of  artillery.  Their 
effect  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  various.  Sometimes  it  is 
instantaneously  heaved  up  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  and 
sometimes  it  assumes  a  kind  of  rolling  motion,  from  side  to 
side.  The  ravages  which  earthquakes  have  produced  are  ter- 
rible beyond  description ;  and  are  accomplished  almost  in  a 
moment,  in  1692,  the  city  of  Port-Royal,  in  Jamaica,  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  in  the  space  of  two  minutes,  and 
the  houses  sank  into  a  gulf  forty  fathoms  deep.  In  1693,  an 
earthquake  happened  in  Sicily,  which  either  destroyed,  or 
greatly  damaged  fifty-four  cities,  and  an  incredible  number  of 
villages.  The  city  of  Catania  was  utterly  overthrown ;  the 
sea  all  of  a  sudden  began  to  roar ;  Mount  Etna  to  send  forth 
immense  spires  of  flame ;  and  immediately  a  shock  ensued, 
as  if  all  the  artillery  in  the  world  had  been  discharged.  The 
birds  flew  about  astonished  ;  the  sun  was  darkened ;  the  beasts 
ran  howling  from  the  hills ;  a  dark  cloud  of  dust  covered  the 
air ;  and,  though  the  shock  did  not  last  three  minutes,  yet 
nineteen  thousand  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  perished  in 
the  ruins.  This  shock  extended  to  a  circumference  of  7000 
miles. 

Earthquakes  have  been  producing  their  ravages  in  various 
parts  of  the  world,  and  in  every  age,  and  are  still  continuing 
their  destructive  effects.  Pliny  informs  us,  that  twelve  cities 
in  Asia  Minor  were  swallowed  up  in  one  night.  In  the  year 
115,  the  city  of  Antioch,  and  a  great  part  of  the  adjacent 
country,  were  buried  by  an  earthquake.  About  300  years 
after,  it  was  again  destroyed,  along  with  40,000  inhabitants  : 
and,  after  an  interval  of  only  60  years,  it  was  a  third  time 
overturned,  with  the  loss  of  not  less  than  60,000  souls.  In 
1755,  Lisbon  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  it  buried 
under  its  ruins  above  50,000  inhabitants.  The  effects  of  this 
terrible  earthquake  were  felt  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe 
and  Africa,  and  even  in  the  midst  of  the  Atlantic  ocean ;  and 
are  calculated  to  have  extended  over  a  space  of  not  less  than 
four  millions  of  square  miles.  In  August,  1822,  two  thirds 
of  the  city  of  Aleppo,  which  contained  40,000  houses,  and 
200,000  inhabitants,  were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and 
nearly  30,000  were  buried  under  the  ruins.  On  the  7ih  May, 
1842,  at  5  o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  town  of  Cape  Haytien, 

29* 


342  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

in  the  island  of  St.  Domingo,  was  totally  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  and  ten  thousand  of  the  inhabitants — forming  two 
thirds  of  the  population — perished  in  the  catastrophe.  The 
tovvns  of  St.  Nicholas  and  Port  Paix,  were  also  tumbled  into 
ruins,  and  most,  if  not  all  towns  on'  the  north  side  of  the 
island,  in  some  of  which  multitudes  of  the  inhabitants  were 
destroyed,  amounting  in  all  to  about  20,000  human  beings 
who  perished  in  that  tremendous  concussion.  Its  effects  were 
traced  from  W.  longitude  56°  in  the  northern  part  of  the  tro- 
pics, to  W.  longitude  91°,  comprehending  an  extent,  from 
east  to  west,  of  35°,  passing  along  Cuba,  Louisiana,  and  part 
of  the  United  States. 

To  suppose  that  the  human  beings  who  have  been  victims 
to  the  ravages  of  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  "  were  sinners 
above  all  those  who  dwelt  around  them,"  would  be  the  height 
of  impiety  and  presumption.  But  the  fact,  that  thousands  of 
rational  beings  have  been  swept  from  existence,  in  a  manner 
so  horrible  and  tremendous,  seems  plainly  to  indicate,  that 
they  belong  to  a  race  of  apostate  intelligences,  who  had  vio- 
lated the  commands  of  their  Creator.  Such  visitations  are 
quite  accordant  to  the  idea  of  man  being  in  the  condition  of  a 
transgressor;  but,  if  he  were  an  innocent  creature,  they  would 
be  altogether  unaccountable,  as  happening  under  the  govern- 
ment of  a  Being  of  unbounded  benevolence. 

4.  The  phenomena  of  thunder  storms^  tempests^  and  hurri- 
canes^ and  the  ravages  they  produce,  are  also  presumptive 
proofs  that  man  is  a  depraved  intelligence.  In  that  season  of 
the  year  when  nature  is  arrayed  in  a  most  beautiful  attire,  and 
the  whole  terrestrial  landscape  tends  to  inspire  the  mind  with 
cheerfulness — suddenly  a  sable  cloud  emerges  from  the  hori- 
zon— the  sky  assumes  a  baleful  aspect — a  dismal  gloom  en- 
velopes the  face  of  nature — the  lightnings  flash  from  one 
end  of  the  horizon  to  another — the  thunders  roll  with  awful 
irajesty  along  the  verge  of  heaven,  till  at  length  they  burst 
over  head  in  tremendous  explosions.  The  sturdy  oak  is  shat- 
tered and  despoiled  of  its  foliage  ;  rocks  are  rent  into  shivers  ; 
and  the  grazing  herds  are  struck  into  a  lifeless  group.  Even 
man  is  not  exempted  from  danger  in  the  midst  of  this  appall- 
ing scene.  For  hunch-eds  in  every  age  have  fallen  victims, 
either  to  the  direct  stroke  of  the  lightning,  or  to  the  concus- 
sions and  conflagrations  with  which  it  has  been  attended.  In 
tropical  countries,  the  phenomena  of  thunder-storms  are  more 
dreadful  and  appalling  than  in  our  temperate  climate.  The 
thunder  frequently  continues  for  days  and  weeks  in  almost 
one  incessant  roar;  the  rains  are  poured  down   in  torrents; 


DEPRAVITY  OF  MAN.  343 

and  the  flashes  of  lightning  follow  each  other  in  so  rapid  a  suc- 
cession, that  the  whole  atmosphere  and  the  surrounding  hills 
seem  to  be  in  a  blaze.  In  some  instances,  the  most  dreadful 
effects  have  been  produced  by  the  bursting  of  an  electrical 
cloud.  In  1772,  a  bright  cloud  was  observed  at  midnight  to 
cover  a  mountain  in  the  island  of  Java ;  it  emitted  globes  of 
fire  so  luminous,  that  the  night  became  as  clear  as  day.  Its 
effects  were  astonishing.  Every  thing  was  destroyed  for  seven 
leagues  around ;  houses  were  demolished  ;  plantations  buried 
in  the  earth;  and  2140  people  lost  their  lives,  besides  1500 
head  of  cattle,  and  a  vast  number  of  horses  and  other  ani- 
mals.* 

Is  it  not  reasonable,  then,  to  conclude,  that  such  awful  phe- 
nomena as  storms,  volcanoes,  and  earthquakes,  are  so  many 
occasional  indications  of  the  frown  of  an  offended  Creator 
upon  a  race  of  transgressors,  in  order  to  arouse  them  to  a 
sense  of  their  apostacy  from  the  God  of  heaven  ?  We  cannot 
conceive  that  such  physical  operations,  accompanied  by  so 
many  terrific  and  destructive  effects,  are  at  all  compatible  with 
the  idea,  that  man  is  at  present  in  a  paradisiacal  state,  and 
possessed  of  that  moral  purity  in  which  he  was  created. 
Such  appalling  displays  of  Almighty  power  are  in  complete 
unison  with  the  idea,  that  man  is  a  transgressor,  and  that  the 
present  dispensations  of  God  are  a  mixture  of  mercy  and  of 
judgement;  but  if  he  belong  to  an  innocent  race  of  moral 
intelligences,  they  appear  quite  anomalous,  and  are  altogether 
inexplicable,  on  the  supposition,  that  a  Being  of  infinite 
benevolence  and  rectitude  directs  the  operations  of  the  phy- 
sical and  moral  world ;  more  especially  when  we  consider 
the  admirable  care  which  is  displayed  in  the  construction  of 
animal  bodies,  in  order  to  prevent  pain,  and  to  produce  plea- 
surable sensations.  When  man  was  first  brought  into  exist- 
ence, his  thoughts  and  affections,  we  must  suppose,  were  in 
unison  with  the  will  of  his  Creator  ;  his  mind  was  serene 
and  unruffled  ;  and,  consequently,  no  foreboding  apprehen- 
sions of  danger  would  in  such  a  state,  take  possession  of 
his  breast.  But  after  he  had  swerved  from  the  path  of  prime- 
val rectitude,  and  especially  after  the  deluge  had  swept  away 
tlie  inhabitants  of  the  antediluvian  world,  the  constitution  of 
tlie  earth  and  the  atmosphere  seems  to  have  undergone  a 
mighty  change,  corresponding  to  the  de^aded  state  into 
which  he  had  fallen  ;  so  that  those  very  elements  which  may 
have  formerly  ministered  to  his  enjoyment — by  being  formed 

*  Encyc.  Brit.  Art.  Cloud. 


344  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

into  different  combinations — now  conspire  to  produce  terror 
and  destruction. 

The  same  important  conclusion  might  have  been  deduced, 
from  a  consideration  of  the  immense  deserts  of  marshes  and 
barren  sands  which  are  dispersed  over  the  globe — the  vast 
and  friglitful  regions  of  ice  around  the  poles — the  position  of 
the  mineral  strata,  and  the  vast  disproportion  which  the  ex- 
tent of  the  dry  land  bears  to  the  expanse  of  the  ocean, — all 
which  circumstances,  and  many  others,  in  conjunction  with 
the  facts  above  stated,  conspire  to  show,  that  man  no  longer 
stands  in  the  rank  of  a  pure  intelligence  ;  and  that  his  habita- 
tion corresponds,  in  some  degree,  to  his  state  of  moral  degra- 
dation. By  overlooking  this  consideration,  St.  Pierre  and 
other  naturalists  have  found  themselves  much  at  a  loss,  when 
attempting  to  vindicate  the  wisdom  and  equity  of  Providence, 
in  the  physical  disorders  which  exist  in  the  present  constitu- 
tion of  our  globe.  The  circumstance,  that  man  is  a  fallen 
creature,  appears  the  only  clue  to  guide  us  in  unravelling  the 
mysteries  of  Providence,  and  to  enable  us  to  perceive  the 
harmony  and  consistency  of  the  Divine  operations  in  the  sys- 
tem of  nature  ;  and  no  other  consideration  will  fully  account 
for  the  disorders  which  exist  in  the  present  economy  of  our 
world. 

But  it  is  a  most  consoling  consideration,  that,  amidst  all  the 
physical  evils  which  abound,  the  benevolence  and  mercy  of 
God  are  admirably  blended  with  the  indications  of  his  dis- 
pleasure. Thunder-storms  and  tempests  contribute  to  the 
purification  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  volcanoes  are  converted 
into  funnels  for  vomiting  up  those  fiery  materials  which  pro- 
duce earthquakes,  and  which  might  otherwise  swallow  up 
whole  provinces  in  one  mighty  gulf  In  the  ordinary  course 
of  things,  such  plienomena  are  more  terrific  than  destructive  ; 
and  are  calculated  rather  to  rouse  an  unthinking  world  to  con- 
sideration, than  to  prove  the  instruments  of  human  destruc- 
tion. Compared  with  the  miseries  which  men  have  voluntarily 
inflicted  on  one  another,  the  destructive  effects  of  the  elements 
of  nature  dwindle  into  mere  temporary  and  trifling  accidents. 
We  have  reason  to  believe,  that  a  much  greater  destruction  of 
human  beings  has  been  produced  by  two  or  three  of  the  late 
battles  in  modern  Europe,  such  as  those  of  Waterloo,  Boro- 
dina,  and  Smolensko,  than  has  been  produced  by  all  the  elec- 
trical storms,  earthquakes,  and  volcanic  eruptions,  which 
have  raged  for  the  space  of  several  hundred  years?.  It  has 
been  calculated,  that,  during  the  Russian  campaign  of  1812, 
including  men,  women,  and  children,  belonging  to  the  French 


THE  RESURRECTION  ILLUSTRATED.  345 

and  Russians,  there  were  not  less  than  five  hundred  thousand 
human  victims  sacrificed  to  the  demon  of  war.  It  is  probable, 
that  the  destruction  produced  among  the  human  race,  by  the 
convulsions  of  nature,  since  the  commencement  of  time,  (the 
deluge  only  excepted,)  does  not  amount  to  above  four  or  five 
millions  of  lives  ;  but  were  we  to  take  into  account  the  de- 
struction of  human  life  produced  by  ambition,  tyranny,  oppres- 
sion, superstition,  wars,  devastations,  murders,  and  horrid 
cruelties,  in  every  period  of  the  world,  it  would,  doubtless, 
amount  to  several  thousands  of  millions.  So  that,  amidst  the 
most  terrible  displays  of  the  displeasure  of  God  against  the 
sins  of  men,  mercy  is  mingled  with  judgement;  and  while  man 
is  the  greatest  enemy  and  destroyer  of  his  own  species,  bene- 
volence is  the  prominent  feature  of  all  the  arrangements  of  the 
Deity  in  the  physical  world.  For  although  he  is  great  in 
power  he  is  slow  to  anger,  and  "  his  tender  mercies  are  over 
all  his  works."  The  evils  which  flow  from  the  operation. of 
the  elements  of  nature  ought  not  to  be  considered  as  the  in- 
flictions of  avenging  justice,  but  as  the  kind  admonitions  of  a 
benevolent  Father,  who  willeth  not  that  any  should  perish, 
but  that  all  should  come  to  repentance — and  who  has  dis- 
played his  love  to  the  human  race  in  such  a  wonderful 
manner,  that  "  he  gave  his  only-begotten  Son,  that  whosoever 
believeth  on  him  might  not  perish  but  have  everlasting  life.""* 

III. —  The  discoveries  which  have  been  made  in  the  system  of 
nature  illustrate  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 

DEAD. 

The  doctrine  of  a  resurrection  from  the  dead,  at  first  view, 
appears  to  involve  in  it  a  variety  of  difliculties  and  apparent 
contradictions.  That  a  complex  organical  machine,  as  the 
human  body  is,  consisting  of  thousands  of  diversified  parts 
for  the  performance  of  its  functions,  after  it  has  been  reduced 
to  atoms,  and  those  atoms  dispersed  to  "  the  four  winds  of 
heaven" — should  be  again  reared  up  with  the  same  materials, 
in  a  new  and  more  glorious  form, — is  an  idea  which  seems  to 
baffle  the  human  comprehension ;  and,  in  all  probability, 
would  never  have  entered  the  mind  of  man,  had  it  not  been 

*  The  facts  stated  in  this  section  are  expressed,  for  the  most  part,  in  the 
author's  own  words,  for  the  sake  of  compression.  His  authorities  are, 
Goldsmith's  Natural  History,  Humboldt's  Travels,  Brydon's  Tour,  Sir 
W.  Hamilton's  Observations,  Raffle's  History  of  Java,  Encyc.  Brit.  Art. 
Etna,  Volcano,  Earthquake,  Antioch,,  Cloud — Ellis'  Polynesian  Re- 
searches, &-C. 


346  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

communicated  by  Divine  revelation.  Accordingly  we  find 
that  the  pliilosophers  of  antiquity,  though  many  of  them  be- 
lieved in  the  doctrine  of  a  future  state,  never  once  dreamed 
that  the  bodies  of  men,  after  they  had  been  committed  to  dust, 
would  ever  again  be  reanimated  :  and  hence,  when  tlie  apostle 
Paul  proposed  this  doctrine  to  the  Athenian  philosophers, 
they  scouted  the  idea,  as  if  it  had  been  the  revery  of  a  mad- 
man. And,  indeed,  without  a  strong  conviction,  and  a  lively 
impression,  of  the  infinite  power  and  intelligence  of  God,  the 
mind  cannot  rely  with  unshaken  confidence  on  the  declaration 
of  a  future  fact  so  widely  different  from  all  the  obvious  phe- 
nomena of  nature,  and  from  every  thing  that  lies  within  the 
range  of  human  experience.  "  If  a  man  die,"  says  Job,  ••'  shall 
he  live  again  ?  There  is  hope  of  a  tree,  if  it  be  cut  down, 
that  it  will  sprout  again,  and  bring  forth  boughs  like  a  plant. 
But  man  dieth  and  wasteth  away;  yea,  man  giveth  up  the 
ghost,  and  where  is  he  ?"  When  the  mind,  however,  is  fre-- 
quently  exercised  in  contemplations  on  the  stupendous  vs^orks 
of  the  Almighty,  it  must  feel  an  impressive  conviction,  that 
*' nothing  can  be  too  hard  for  Jehovah."  When  we  endea- 
vour to  draw  aside  the  veil  which  conceals  many  of  the  scenes 
of  nu;ure  from  the  vulgar  eye,  we  perceive  a  variety  of  opera- 
tions and  analogies,  which  tend  to  assist  us  in  forming  a  con- 
ception, not  only  of  the  possibility  of  a  resurrection,  but  also 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  may  probably  be  effected,  when  the 
power  of  Omnipotence  is  interposed. 

The  transformation  of  insects  affords  us  a  beautiful  illustra- 
tion of  this  subject.  All  the  butterflies  which  we  see  fluttering 
about  in.  the  summer  months  were  originally  caterpillars. 
Before  they  arrive  at  the  highest  stage  of  their  existence,  they 
pass  through  four  different  transformations.  The  first  state 
of  a  butterfly  is  that  of  an  egg  ;  it  next  assumes  the  form  of  a 
loathsome  crawling  worm ;  after  remaining  some  time  in  this 
state,  it  throws  off'  its  caterpillar  skin,  languishes,  refuses  to 
eat,  ceases  to  move,  and  is  shut  up,  as  it  were,  in  a  tomb.  In 
this  slate,  the  animal  is  termed  a  chrysalis  :  it  is  covered  with 
a  thin  crust  or  shell,  and  remains,  sometimes  for  six  or  eight 
months,  without  motion,  and  apparenUy  without  life.  After 
remaining  its  allotted  time  in  this  torpid  condition,  it  begins  to 
acquire  new  life  and  vigour;  it  bursts  its  imprisonment,  and 
comes  forth  a  butterfly,  with  wings  tinged  with  the  most 
beautiful  colours.  It  mounts  the  air,  it  ranges  from  flower  to 
flower,  and  seems  to  rejoice  in  its  new  and  splendid  existence. 
How  very  different  does  it  appear  in  this  state,  from  what  it 
did  in  the  preceding  stages  of  its  existence !     How  unlikely 


THE  RESURRECTlOxV  ILLUSTRATED.  347 

(lid  it  seem,  that  a  rough,  haiiy,  crawling  worm,  which  lay 
for  such  a  length  of  time,  in  a  death-like  toi-por,  and  en- 
shrouded in  a  tomb,  should  be  reanimated,  as  it  were,  and 
changed  into  so  beautiful  a  form,  and  endued  with  such 
powers  of  rapid  motion  !  Perhaps  the  change  to  be  effected 
on  the  bodies  of  men,  at  the  general  resurrection,  may  not  be 
greater,  nor  more  wonderful  in  its  nature,  than  are  the  changes 
which  take  place  from  the  first  to  the  last  stage  of  a  cater- 
pillar's existence.  In  such  transformations,  then,  we  behold 
a  lively  representation  of  the  death  and  resurrection  of  a 
righteous  man.  "  A  little  while  he  shall  lie  in  the  ground, 
as  the  seed  lies  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth  ;  but  he  shall  be 
raised  again,  and  shall  never  die  any  more." 

There  is  another  illustration,  taken  from  a  consideration  of 
the  chemical  changes  of  matter,  which  has  a  still  more  direct 
bearing  on  the  doctrine  of  a  resurrection.  We  know,  that 
substances  which  are  invisibly  incorporated  with  air,  water, 
and  other  fluids,  and  which  seem  to  be  destroyed,  may  be  made 
to  reappear  in  their  original  form  by  the  application  of  certain 
chemical  re-agents.  For  example,  put  a  small  piece  of  solid  cam- 
phor into  a  phial  half  filled  with  alcohol  or  spirit  of  wine — 
in  a  short  time  the  camphor  will  be  dissolved  in  the  fluid,  and 
the  spirit  will  be  as  transparent  as  at  first.  If  water  be  now 
added,  it  will  unite  with  the  ardent  spirit,  and  the  camphor 
will  be  separated  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  phial.  In  this 
way  the  camphor  may  be  nearly  all  recovered  as  at  first ;  and, 
by  distillation,  the  alcohol  may  also  be  separated  from  the 
water,  and  exhibited  in  a  separate  state.  I  have  already  no- 
ticed, that  carbon,  which  forms  an  essential  part  of  all  animal 
and  vegetable  substances,  is  found  to  be  not  only  indestructible 
by  age,  but  in  all  its  combinations,  which  are  infinitely  diver- 
sified, it  still  preserves  its  identity.  In  the  state  of  carbonic 
acid,  it  exists  in  union  with  earths  and  stones  in  unbounded 
quantities  ;  and,  though  buried  for  thousands  of  years  beneath 
immense  rocks,  or  in  the  centre  of  mountains,  it  is  still  car- 
bonic acid :  for  no  sooner  is  it  disengaged  from  its  dormitory, 
than  it  rises  with  all  the  life  and  vigour  of  recent  formation, 
not  in  the  least  impaired  by  its  torpid  inactivity  during  a  lapse 
of  ages.  The  beams  of  the  theatre  at  Herculaneum  were 
converted  into  charcoal,  (which  is  one  of  the  compounds  of 
carbon,)  by  the  lava  which  overflowed  that  city  during  an 
eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius ;  and,  during  the  lapse  of  seven- 
teen hundred  years,  the  charcoal  has  remained  as  entire  as  if 
it  had  been  formed  but  yesterday,  and  it  will  probably  continue 
so  to  the  end  of  the  world.     In  addition  to  these  facts,  it  may 


348  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

be  stated,  that  provision  has  been  made  for  the  restoration  of 
the  fallen  leaves  of  vegetables  which  rot  upon  the  ground,  and, 
to  a  careless  observer,  would  appear  to  be  lost  for  ever.  It  has 
been  shown  by  experiment,  that  whenever  the  soil  becomes 
charged  with  such  matter,  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  com- 
bines with  it,  and  converts  it  into  carbonic  acid  gas.  The 
consequence  of  which  is,  that  this  very  same  carbon  is,  in  pro- 
cess of  time,  absorbed  by  a  new  race  of  vegetables,  which  it 
clothes  with  a  new  foliage,  and  which  is  itself  destined  to 
undergo  similar  putrefaction  and  renovation  to  the  end  of 
time.* 

These  facts,  and  others  of  a  similar  description,  which 
might  have  been  stated,  demonstrate,  that  one  of  the  consti- 
tuent parts  of  animal  bodies  remains  unalterably  the  same 
amidst  all  the  revolutions  of  time,  and  all  the  changes  and 
decompositions  which  take  place  in  the  system  of  nature; 
and,  consequently,  that  though  human  bodies  may  remain  in 
a  state  of  putrefaction  for  ages,  in  the  earth  and  in  the  waters, 
yet  their  component  parts  remain  unchanged,  and  in  readiness 
to  enter  into  a  new  and  more  glorious  combination,  at  the' 
command  of  that  Intelligence,  to  whom  all  th^  principles  of 
nature,  and  all  their  diversified  changes,  are  intimately  known; 
and  whose  power  is  able  to  direct  their  combinations  to  the 
accomplishment  of  his  purposes.  Though  such  considera- 
tions as  these  may  have  no  weight  on  certain  unreflecting 
minds,  that  never  met  with  any  difliculties  in  the  economy 
either  of  nature  or  of  redemption — yet  the  man  of  deep  reflec- 
tion, who  has  frequently  had  his  mind  distracted  with  the  ap- 
parent improbability  of  the  accomplishment  of  certain  divine 
declarations,  will  joyfully  embrace  such  facts  in  the  economy 
of  nature,  as  a  sensible  support  to  his  faith  in  the  promises  of 
his  God ;  and  will  resign  his  body  to  dust  and  putrefaction,  in 
the  Arm  hope  of  emergng  from  the  tomb  to  a  future  and  more 
glorious  transformation. 

IV. —  The  discoveries  of  science  tend  to  illustrate  the  doctrine 

of  the   GENERAL  CONFLAGRATION. 

We  are  informed,  in  the  sacred  oracles,  that  a  period  is  ap- 
proaching, when  "  the  elements  shall  melt  with  fervent  heat, 
and  the  earth,  and  the  works  that  are  therein,  shall  be  burned 
up."  Science  has  ascertained  certain  facts  in  the  constitution 
of  nature,  which  lead  us  to  form  some  conception  of  the  man- 

*  Parke's  Chemical  Catechism,  p.  266,  and  the  additional  notes. 


GENERAL  CONFLAGRATIOiV.  349 

ncr  ill  whicli  this  awful  catastrophe  may  probably  be  effected, 
and  also  of  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  accomplished, 
when  the  destined  period  shall  have  arrived.  It  was  formerly 
stated,  (pp.  73,  289,)  that  the  atmosphere,  or  the  air  we  breathe, 
is  a  compound  substance,  composed  of  two  very  different  and 
opposite  principles,  termed  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  The  oxygen, 
which  forms- about  a  fifth  part  of  the  atmosphere,  is  now  as- 
certained to  be  the  principle  of  flame:  a  lighted  taper,  immersed 
in  this  gas,  burns  with  a  brilliancy  too  great  for  the  eye  to 
bear ;  and  even  a  rod  of  iron  or  steel  is  made  to  blaze  under 
its  energy. 

The  modern  infidel,  like  the  scoffers  of  old,  scouts  the  idea 
of  the  dissolution  of  the  world,  and  of  the  restitution  of  the 
universe,  "  because  all  things  continue  as  they  were  from  the 
beginning  of  the  creation ;  not  knowing  the  Scriptures,  nor 
the  power  of  God ;"  and  not  considering  the  principles  and 
facts  in  the  system  of  nature,  which  indicate  the  possibility  of 
such  an  event.  But,  from  the  fact  now  stated,  we  may  learn,  how 
easily  this  effect  may  be  accomplished,  even  in  conformity  with 
those  laws  which  now  operate  in  the  constitution  of  our  globe. 
For,  should  ihe  Creator  issue  forth  his  almighty  fiat — "Let 
the  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere  be  completely  separated  from 
the  oxygen,  and  let  the  oxygen  exert  its  native  energies  with- 
out control,  wherever  it  extends;" — from  what  we  know  of  its 
nature,  we  are  warranted  to  conclude,  that  instantly  a  universal 
conflagration  would  commence  throughout  all  the  kingdoms 
of  nature — not  only  wood,  coals,  sulphur,  bitumen,  and  other 
combustible  substances,  but  even  the  hardest  rocks  and  stones, 
and  all  the  metals,  fossils,  and  minerals,  and  water  itself, 
which  is  a  compound  of  two  inflammable  substances,  would 
blaze  with  a  rapidity  which  would  carry  destruction  through 
the  whole  expanse  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  and  change  its 
present  aspect  into  that  of  a  nevv  world: — at  the  same  time, 
all  the  other  laws  of  nature  might  still  operate  as  they  have 
hitherto  done  since  the  creation  of  the  world. 

I  do  not  mean  positively  to  assert,  that  this  is  the  agent 
which  the  Almighty  will  certainly  employ  for  accomplishing 
this  terrible  catastrophe,  (though  I  think  it  highly  probable) 
since  infinite  power  is  possessed  of  numerous  resources  for 
accomplishing  its  objects,  which  lie  beyond  the  sphere  of  our 
knowledge  and  comprehension.  But  I  have  brought  forward 
this  fact,  to  show  with  what  infinite  ease  this  event  may  be 
accomplished,  when  almighty  power  is  interposed.  By  means 
of  the  knowledge  we  have  acquired  of  the  constitution  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  bv  the  aid  of  chemical  apparatus,  we  can 

30 


350  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

perform  experiments  on  a  small  scale^  similar  in  kind,  though 
infinitely  inferior  in  degree,  to  the  awful  event  under  consi- 
deration. And,  therefore,  we  can  easily  conceive  that  He  who 
formed  the  expansive  atmosphere  which  surrounds  us,  and 
who  knows  the  native  energy  of  its  constituent  principles,  may, 
by  a  simple  volition,  make  that  invisible  fluid,  in  a  few  mo- 
ments, the  cause  of  the  destruction  of  the  present  constitution 
of  our  world,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  means  of  its  subse- 
quent renovation.  For,  as  fire  does  not  annihilate,  but  only 
changes  the  forms  of  matter,  this  globe  on  which  we  now 
tread,  and  which  bears  the  marks  of  ruin  and  disruption  in 
several  parts  of  its  structure,  may  come  forth  from  the  flames 
of  a  general  conflagration,  purified  from  all  its  physical  evils, 
adorned  with  new  beauties  and  sublimities,  and  rendered  a  fit 
habitation  for  pure  intelligences,  either  of  our  own  species  or 
of  another  order.  For  though  "  the  heavens,"  or  the  atmo- 
sphere, "  shall  be  dissolved,  and  the  elements  melt  with  fer- 
vent heat;"  "  yet,"  says  the  apostle  Peter,  "  we,  according  to 
his  promise,  look  for  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth,  wherein 
dwelleth  righteousness."  Whether,  after  being  thus  renovated, 
it  shall  be  allotted  as  the  residence  of  the  redeeme^  inhabitants 
of  our  world,  is  beyond  our  province  at  present  to  determine. 
But  if  not,  it  will,  in  all  probability,  be  allotted  as  the  abode 
of  other  rational  beings,  who  may  be  transported  from  other 
regions,  to  contemplate  a  new  province  of  the  Divine  empire, 
or  who  may  be  immediately  created  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
possession  of  this  renovated  world.  For  we  have  reason  to 
believe  that  the  energies  of  creating  power  will  be  conti- 
nually exerted,  in  replenishing  the  boundless  universe,  through- 
out all  the  ages  of  infinite  duration ;  and  that  no  substances, 
or  worlds,  which  God  has  created,  will  ever  be  suffered  to  fall 
into  annihilation — at  least,  that  the  original  atoms  of  matter 
will  never  be  destroyed,  whatever  new  forms  they  may  assume, 
and  however  varied  the  combinations  into  which  they  may 
enter. 

The  above  are  only  a  few  examples  out  of  many  which 
were  intended  to  be  specified,  of  the  illustrations  which  the 
system  of  nature  affl^rds  of  the  doctrines  and  facts  of  revela- 
tion, but  the  narrow  limits  of  (his  volume  prevent  further  en- 
largement. 

Jt  was  intended  to  follow  up  the  preceding  discussions  with 
particular  illustrations  of  the  following  topics : — The  views 
which  science  aflTords  of  the  incessant  energies  of  creating 
Power — the  changes  and  revolutions  which  appear  to  have 
happened,  and  which  are  still  going  on  in  the  distant  regions 


GENERAL  CONFLAGRATIOJSf.  351 

of  the  universe,  as  lending  to  amplify  our  views  of  the  grand 
and  multifarious  objects  over  which  Divine  Providence  pre- 
sides— the  connexion  of  science  with  a  future  state — the  aids 
which  the  discoveries  of  science  afford,  in  enabling  us  to  form 
a  conception  of  the  scenes  of  future  felicity — of  the  employ- 
ments of  the  heavenly  inhabitants,  and  of  their  perpetual  ad- 
vances in  knowledge  and  happiness,  and  in  their  views  of  the 
perfections  of  Deity* — X\\emoral  relations  of  intelligent  beings 
to  their  Creator,  and  to  each  other;  and  the  physical  grounds 
or  reasons  of  those  moral  laws  which  the  Deity  has  promul- 
gated, for  regulating  the  conduct,  and  for  promoting  the 
harmony  and  order  of  intelligent  agents| — illustrations  of  the 
allusions  of  the  sacred  writers  to  the  system  of  the  material 
world — the  simultaneous  progress  of  science  and  religion^ 
considered  as  an  evidence  of  the  connexion  of  the  one  with 
the  other — the  moral  effects  of  the  Study  of  science  in  con- 
nexion with  religion — replies  to  objections  and  insinuations 
which  have  been  thrown  out  against  the  idea  of  combining  the 
discoveries  of  science  with  the  discoveries  of  revelation,  &c. 
But  as  illustrations  of  these,  and  various  other  topics  con- 
nected with  them,  would  occupy  several  hundreds  of  pages, 
they  must,  in  the  mean  time,  be  postponed-^ 

*  Several  of  these  subjects  along  with  many  others  are  fully  illustrated 
in  the  author's  volume,  entitled,  "  The  Philosophy  of  a  Future  State." 

t  These  and  a  variety  of  kindred  topics  are  illustrated  at  considerable 
length  in  my  work  entitled  "  The  Philosophy  of  Religion;  or,  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  Moral  Laws  of  the  Universe,  on  the  principles  of  Reason  and  of 
Divine  Revelation" — in  which  an  original  and  popular  train  of  thought  is 
prosecuted,  and  the  different  topics  are  enlivened  with  illustrative  facts  de- 
rived from  the  scenery  of  nature  and  the  moral  history  of  mankind. 

X  Several  of  the  topics  alluded  to  in  this  paragraph  will  be  found  more  or 
less  illustrated  in  the  author's  volumes,  entitled  '"  Celestial  Scenery" — 
and  "  The  Sidereal  Heavens" — in  which  "  the  incessant  energies  of  cre- 
ating power" — the  changes  and  revolutions  which  have  happened  and  are 
still  going  forward  in  the  distant  regions  of  the  universe — the  doctrine  of  a 
plurality  of  worlds — and  many  other  kindred  topics,  are  particularly  eluci- 
dated. 


352  CHRISTIAxN  PHILOSOPHER. 


CHAPTER  V.  • 

BEx\EFICIAL  EFFECTS  WHICH  MIGHT  RESULT  TO  CHRISTIAN 
SOCIETY,  FROM  CONNECTING  THE  DISCOVERIES  OF  SCIENCE 
WITH   THE  OBJECTS  OF  RELIGION. 

J. —  Tlie  VARIETY  OF  TOPICS  li'lilch  U'oulcl  he  introduced  rn/o 
Christian  instructions^  by  connecting  them  with  the  manifes- 
tations of  Deity  in  the  system  of  nature^  would  have   a 

TENDENCY  TO  ALLURE  THE  ATTENTION  OF  THE  YOUNG  TO 

RELIGIOUS  SUBJECTS,  and  to  afford  mental  entertaimnent^ 
and  moral  instruction^  to  intelligent  minds  of  every  descrip- 
tion. 

Novelty  and  variety  appear  to  be  essentially  requisite  in 
order  to  rouse  the  attention,  not  only  of  the  more  ignorant,  but 
even  of  the  more  intelligent  class  of  mankind,  and  to  excite 
them  to  make  progress  in  the  path  of  intellectual  and  moral 
improvement.  The  principle  of  curiosity.,  which  appears  at  a 
very  early  period  of  life,  and  which  variegated  scenery  and 
novel  objects  tend  to  stimulate  and  to  gratify — so  far  from  be- 
ing checked  and  decried,  in  a  religious  point  of  view,  as  some 
have  been  disposed  to  do,  ought  to  be  encouraged  and  culti- 
vated in  the  minds  both  of  the  old  and  of  the  young.  As  it 
is  a  principle  which  God  himself  has  implanted  in  our  natures, 
for  wise  and  important  purposes,  it  requires  only  to  be 
chastened,  and  directed  in  a  proper  channel,  in  order  to  be- 
come one  of  the  most  powerful  auxiliaries  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion, and  of  intellectual  improvement.  To  gratify  this 
principle,  and  to  increase  its  activity,  the  Creator  has  adorned 
our  globe  with  a  combination  of  beauties  and  sublimities, 
strewed  in  endless  variety  over  all  its  different  regions.  The 
hills  and  dales,  the  mountains  and  plains  ;•  the  seas,  the  lakes, 
the  rivers  ;  the  islands  of  every  form  and  size  which  diversify 
the  surface  of  the  ocean;  the  bays,  the  gulfs,  and  peninsulas; 
the  forests,  the  groves,  the  deep  dells,  and  towering  cliffs  ;  the 
infinite  variety  of  trees,  plants,  flowers,  and  vegetable  produc- 
tions of  every  hue,  so  profusely  scattered  over  tlie  face  of 
nature;  the  diversified  productions  of  the  mineral  kingdom; 
the  variegated  colouring  spread  over  the  face  of  nature;  to- 
gether with  many  thousands  of  different  species  of  animated 
beings  which  traverse  the  air,  the  waters,  and  the  earth — afibrd 
so  many  stimuli  to  rouse  this  principle  into  exercise,  and  to 
direct  the  mind  to  the  contemplation  of  the  Creator.  And, 
as  the  earth  displays  an  endless  diversity  of  objects,  so  the 


VARIETY  OF  TOPICS  IN  RELIGION.  353 

heavens,  in  so  far  as  ihey  have  been  explored,  exhibit  a  scenery 
both  grand  and  variegated.  There  is  not  a  planet  in  the  solar 
system  but  differs  from  another,  in  its  magnitude,  in  its  distance 
from  the  central  luminary  about  which  it  revolves,  in  the  velo- 
city of  its  motion,  in  the  extent  of  the  circle  it  describes  around 
the  sun,  in  the  period  of  time  in  which  its  revolution  is  com- 
pleted, in  its  rotation  round  its  axis,  in  the  number  of  moons 
with  which  it  is  attended,  in  the  inclination  of  its  axis  to  the 
plane  o^  its  orbit,  and  the  diversity  of  seasons  which  results 
from  this  circumstance ;  in  the  density  of  its  atmosphere,  and 
the  various  appearances  which  diversify  its  surface.  And,  if 
we  were  favoured  with  a  nearer  view  of  these  majestic  orbs, 
we  should,  doubtless,  behold  a  similar  variety  in  every  part 
of  their  internal  arrangements.  The  surface  of  the  moon  pre- 
sents a  variegated  prospect  of  mountains  and  vales,  but  so  very 
different  in  their  form,  position,  and  arrangement,  from  what 
obtains  on  the  surface  of  our  globe,  that  it  would  exhibit  a 
scenery  altogether  new  and  uncommon  to  an  inhabitant  of 
this  world,  were  he  placed  on  the  surface  of  that  planet. 
Every  comet,  too,  is  distinguished  from  another,  by  its  magni- 
tude, the  extent  of  its  atmosphere,  the  length  of  its  blazing  tail, 
the  rapidity  of  its  motion,  and  the  figure  of  the  curve  it  de- 
scribes around  the  sun.  With  regard  to  the  fixed  stars,  which 
are  distributed,  of  every  size,  and  in  every  direction,  through 
the  immensity  of  space,  our  senses,  as  well  as  the  declaration 
of  an  inspired  writer,  convince  us,  that  in  point  of  brilliancy, 
colour,  motion,  and  magnitude,  "  one  star  differeth  from  an- 
other star  in  glory."  Almost  every  nebula  of  the  three  thou- 
sand which  have  been  discovered,  differs  from  another  in  its 
figure,  extent,  brightness,  and  general  appearance;  and  the 
motions  of  double  and  treble  stars,  as  to  the  periods  of  their 
revolutions,  are  as  diversified  as  those  of  the  planets — some 
of  them  revolving  around  their  centres  in  thirty  or  forty  years, 
and  others  requiring  four  hundred,  and  even  sixteen  hundred 
years,  to  finish  their  circuits — some  of  them  diffusing  a  bluish 
light,  others  a  red,  and  others  a  brilliant  white. 

And  as  the  system  of  nature,  in  all  its  parts,  presents  a 
boundless  variety  of  scenery,  to  arouse  the  attention,  to  gratify 
the  desire  for  novelty,  so  the  revelation  of  God,  contained  in 
the  sacred  records,  displays  a  diversified  combination  of  the 
most  sublime  and  interesting  subjects  and  events.  Were  we 
to  form  an  opinion  of  the  compass  of  Divine  revelation,  from 
the  range  of  subjects  to  which  the  minds  of  some  professing 
Christians  are  confined,  it  might  all  be  comprehended  within 
the  limits  of  five  or  six  chapters  of  the  New  Testament ;  and 

30* 


354  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

all  the  rest  niiglit  be  thrown  aside,  as  a  dead  weight  upon  the 
Christian  system.  But  here,  as  in  all  tlie  other  displays  of  the 
Almighty,  Divine  perfection  and  providence  are  exhibited  in  the 
most  diversified  aspects.  Here  we  have  recorded  a  history  of  the 
creation  and  arrangement  of  our  globe — of  the  formation  of  the 
first  human  pair — of  their  primeval  innocence,  temptation,  and 
fall — of  the  arts  which  were  cultivated  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
world — of  the  increase  of  human  wickedness — of  the  building 
o^  the  ark — of  the  droAvning  of  the  world  by  a  wniversal 
deluge — of  the  burning  of  Sodom  by  fire  from  the  clouds — of 
the  origin  of  languages — the  dividing  of  the  Red  sea — of  the 
journeying  of  the  tribes  of  Israel  through  the  deserts  of  Ara- 
bia— of  their  conquest  of  the  promised  land,  and  their  wars 
with  the  nations  of  Canaan — of  the  corporeal  translation  of 
Elijah  from  earth  to  heaven — of  the  manifestation  of  the  Son 
of  God  in  human  flesh,  the  benevolent  miracles  he  performed, 
and  the  triumphs  he  obtained  over  all  the  powers  of  hell  and 
earth.  We  are  here  presented  with  the  most  interesting  and 
aflecting  narratives,  elegies,  dramatic  poems,  and  triumphal 
songs,— with  views  of  society  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world, 
when  the  lives  of  men  were  prolonged  to  nearly  a  thousand 
years, — with  splendid  miracles  performed  in  the  land  of  Egypt, 
in  the  wilderness  of  Horeb,  and  in  the  "  field  of  Zoan,"  when 
"  the  sun  and  moon  stood  still  in  their  habitation  ;"  when 
the  waters  of  the  great  deep  were  divided,  and  mountains 
shook  and  trembled  "  at  the  presence  of  Jehovah,'" — with  the 
glorious  marching  of  a  whole  nation  through  the  Arabian  de- 
serts, under  the  guidance  of  a  miraculous  pillar  of  cloud  and 
fire, — with  the  visits  of  celestial  messengers,  and  the  visible 
symbols  of  "a  present  Deity," — with  prophetical  delineations 
of  the  present  and  future  condition  of  the  race  of  Adam, — 
with  descriptions  of  the  power,  wisdom,  love,  and  majesty  of 
the  Almighty,  and  of  his  operations  in  heaven  and  earth, — 
with  the  results  and  bearings  of  the  economy  of  redemption, — 
with  divine  songs,  odes,  and  hymns,  composed  by  angels  and 
inspired  men, — with  maxims  of  moral  wisdom,  examples  of 
sublime  eloquence,  of  strength  of  reasoning,  and  of  manly 
boldness  of  reproof — with  proverbs,  parables,  allegories,  ex- 
hortations, promises,  threatenitigs,and  consolatory  addresses, — 
In  short,  we  have  here  detailed,  in  the  greatest  variety — history, 
antiquities,  voyages,  travels,  philosophy,  geography,  natural 
and  moral  science,  biography,  arts,  epic  poetry,  epistles,  me- 
moirs, delineations  of  nature,  sketches  of  human  character, 
moral  precepts,  prophecies,  miracles,  narrations,  wonderful 
providences,  marvellous  deliverances,  the  phenomena  of  the 


VARIETY  OF  TOPICS  IN  RELIGIOxV.  355 

air,  the  waters,  and  the  earth ;  the  past,  the  present,  and  tlie 
future  scenes  of  the  world — all  blended  together  in  one  har- 
monious system,  vvithout  artificial  order,  but  with  a  majesty 
and  grandeur,  corresponding  to  the  style  of  all  the  other  works 
of  God,  and  all  calculated  to  gratify  the  principle  of  curiosity 
— to  convey  "reproof,  correction,  and  instruction  in  righteous- 
ness," and  "  to  make  the  man  of  God  perfect,  and  thoroughly 
furnished  to  every  good  work." 

And  as  the  scenes  of  nature,  and  the  scenes  of  revelation, 
are  thus  wonderfully  diversified,  in  order  to  excite  the  atten- 
tion of  intelligent  beings,  and  to  gratify  the  desire  for  variety, 
so  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  scenes,  objects, 
and  dispensations  which  will  be  displayed  in  the  heavenly 
world,  will  be  incomparably  more  grand  and  diversified. 
When  we  consider  the  imni^sity  of  God's  universal  king- 
dom, and  the  numerous  systems,  and  worlds,  and  beings  com- 
prehended within  its  vast  circumference,  and  that  the  energies 
of  creating  Power  may  be  for  ever  exerted  in  raising  new 
worlds  into  existence — we  may  rest  assured,  that  the  desire  of 
variety  and  of  novelty  in  holy  intelligences,  will  be  completely 
gratified  throughout  an  endless  succession  of  existence ;  and 
tiiat  the  most  luxuriant  imagination,  in  its  boldest  excursions, 
can  never  go  beyond  the  reality  of  those  scenes  of  diversified 
grandeur  which  the  heaven  of  heavens  will  display. 

Now,  since  the  book  of  nature  and  the  book  of  revelation, 
since  all  the  manifestations  of  the  Creator  in  heaven  and  earth, 
are  characterized  by  their  sublime  and  diversified  aspect — we 
would  ask,  why  should  we  not  be  imitators  of  God,  in  dis- 
playing the  diversified  grandeur  of  his  kingdom  of  providence 
and  of  grace  before  the  minds  of  those  whom  we  profess  to 
instruct?  Why  should  we  confine  our  views  to  a  few  points 
in  the  Christian  system,  to  a  few  stones  in  the  fabric  of  the 
Divine  operations,  when  "a  wide  and  unbounded  prospect  lies 
before  us  ?"  Why  should  we  not  rather  attempt  to  rouse  the 
moral  and  intellectual  energies  of  mankind,  from  the  pulpit, 
from  the  press,  in  the  school-room,  and  in  the  family  circle, 
by  exhibiting  the  boundless  variety  of  aspect  which  the  reve- 
lations of  heaven  present,  and  the  holy  tendencies  of  devout 
contemplation  on  the  works  and  the  ways  of  God — that  they 
may  learn,  with  intelligence,  to  "meditate  on  all  the  works  of 
the  Lord,  and  to  talk  of  all  his  doings  ?"  By  enlarging  and 
diversifying  the  topics  of  religious  discussion,  according  to  the 
views  now  stated,  we  have  it  in  our  power  to  spread  out  an 
intellectual  feast  to  allure  and  to  gratify  every  variety  of  taste, 
— the  young  and  the  old,  the  learned  and  the  unlearned,  yea, 


356  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

even  the  careless  and  the  ignorant,  the  sceptical  and  the  dissi- 
pated, might  frequently  be  allured  by  the  selection  of  a  judi- 
cious variety  of  striking  and  impressive  objects  and  descrip- 
tions, to  partake  of  those  mental  enjoyments  which  might 
ultimately  issue  in  the  happiest  results.  The  man  of  an  in- 
quisitive turn  of  mind,  who  now  throws  aside  every  thing 
that  has  the  appearance  of  religion,  on  account  of  its  diilness, 
might  have  his  curiosity  gratified  amidst  such  a  variety  as  that 
to  which  I  allude ;  and,  from  perceiving  the  bearing  of  every 
discussion  on  the  great  realities  of  religion  and  a  future  state, 
might  be  led  to  more  serious  inquiries  after  the  path  that  leads 
to  immortality.  In  a  word,  to  associate  and  to  amalgamate,  as 
it  were,  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  every  department  of  useful 
knowledge  with  Divine  subjects,  is  to  consecrate  them  to 
their  original  and  legitimate  emds,  and  to  present  religion  to 
the  eyes  of  men  in  its  most  sublime,  and  comprehensive,  and 
attractive  form,  corresponding  to  what  appears  to  be  the  design 
of  the  Creator,  in  all  the  manifestations  he  has  given  of  him- 
self, in  the  system  of  nature,  in  the  operations  of  providence, 
and  in  the  economy  of  redemption. 

II. — By  connecting  science  with  religion,  Christians  loouJd  be 
enabled  to  take  an  extensive  survey  of  the  kingdom 
OF  God. 

How  very  narrow  and  limited  are  the  views  of  most  pro- 
fessors of  religion  respecting  the  universal  kingdom  of  Jeho* 
vah,  and  the  range  of  his  operations !  The  views  of  some  in- 
dividuals are  confined  chiefly  within  the  limits  of  their  own 
parish,  or  at  farthest,  extend  only  to  the  blue  mountains  that 
skirt  their  horizon,  and  form  the  boundary  of  their  sight. 
Wiliiin  this  narrow  circle,  all  their  ideas  of  God,  of  religion, 
and  of  the  relations  of  intelligent  beings  to  each  other,  are 
chiefly  confined.  There  are  others,  who  form  an  extensive 
class  of  our  population,  whose  ideas  are  confined  nearly  to  the 
country  in  wliich  they  reside,  and  to  the  adjacent  districts ; 
and  there  are  few,  comparatively,  whose  views  extend  beyond 
the  confines  of  the  kingdom  to  which  they  belong — though 
the  whole  island  in  which  we  reside  is  less  than  the  two-thou- 
sandth part  of  the  globe  we  inhabit.  Of  the  vast  extent  of 
this  earthly  ball,  of  its  figure  and  motions,  of  its  continents, 
seas,  islands,  and  oceans  ;  of  its  volcanoes  and  ranges  of  moun- 
tains, of  its  numerous  and  diversified  climates  and  landscapes ; 
of  the  various  nations  and  tribes  of  mankind  that  people  its 
surface,  and  of  the  moral  government  of  God  respecting  them, 


AMPLITUDE  OF  THE  DIVIXE  EMPIRE.  357 

—they  are  almost  as  completely  ig-tiorant  as  the  untutored 
Grppnlander,  or  the  roving  savage.  Witli  regard  to  the  objects 
which  lie  beyond  the  boundary  of  our  world,  they  have  no 
precise  and  definite  conceptions.  When  the  moon  is  "  walk- 
ing in  brightness"  through  the  heavens,  they  take  the  advan- 
tage of  her  light  to  prosecute  their  journeys  ;  and,  when  the 
sky  is  overcast  with  clouds,  and  they  are  anxious  to  travel  a 
few  miles  to  their  destined  homes,  they  will  lift  up  their  eyes 
to  the  heavens  to  see  if  any  of  the  stars  are  twinkling  through 
the  gloom,  that  their  footsteps  may  be  directed  by  their  glim- 
mering rays.  Beyond  this  they  seldom  soar.  What  may  be 
the  nature  of  the  vast  assemblage  of  shining  points  which 
adorn  the  canopy  of  their  habitation,  and  the  ends  they  are 
destined  to  accomplish  in  the  plan  of  the  Creator's  operations, 
they  consider  as  no  part  of  their  province  to  inquire. 

"  Their  minds,  fair  science  never  taught  to  stray 
Far  as  the  solar  worlds,  or  Milky  Way." 

How  very  different,  in  point  of  variety,  of  grandeur,  and  of 
extent,  are  the  views  of  the  man  who  connects  all  the  differ- 
ent departments  of  knowledge,  and  the  discoveries  of  science, 
with  his  prospects  of  God's  universal  dominions  and  govern- 
ment! With  his  mental  eye  he  can  traverse  the  different  re- 
gions of  the  earth,  and  penetrate  into  the  most  distant  and  re- 
tired recesses  where  human  beings  have  their  residence.  He 
can  contemplate  and  adore  the  conduct  of  Divine  sovereignty, 
in  leaving  so  many  nations  to  grope  amidst  the  darkness  of 
heathen  idolatry, — he  can  trace  the  beams  of  the  Sun  of 
Righteousness,  as  they  gradually  arise  to  illumine  the  be- 
nighted tribes  of  men, — he  can  direct  his  prayers,  with  intelli- 
gence and  fervour,  in  behalf  of  particular  kindreds  and  people, 
— he  can  devise,  with  judgement  and  discrimination,  schemes 
for  carrying  the  "  salvation  of  God"  into  eff?ect, — he  can  realize, 
in  some  measure,  to  his  mental  sight,  the  glorious  and  happy 
scenes  which  will  be  displayed  in  the  future  ages  of  time, 
when  "  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  shall  become  the  king- 
doms of  our  Lord,  and  of  his  Christ,"  and  when  the  "ever- 
lasting Gospel"  shall  be  published,  and  its  blessings  distributed 
among  all  who  dwell  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  He  can  bound 
from  this  earth  to  the  planetary  worlds,  and  survey  far  more 
spacious  globes,  peopled  with  a  higher  order  of  intelligences, 
arranged  and  superintended  by  the  same  Almighty  Sovereign, 
who  '^  doth  according  to  his  will  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth."  He  can  wing  his  way  beyond  the  visible  region  of 
the  sky,  till  he  find  himself  surrounded  on  every  hand  with 


358  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

suns  and  systems  of  worlds,  rising  to  view,  in  boundless  per- 
spective, throughout  the  tracts  of  immensity — diversified  with 
scenes  of  magnificence,  and  with  beings  of  every  order — all 
under  the  government  and  the  wise  direction  of  Him  \\  ho 
**  rules  among  the  armies  of  heaven,"  and  \vho  ''  preserveth 
them  all,"  and  whom  the  "  host  of  heaven  worship"  and  adore. 
He  can  soar  beyond  them  all  to  the  throne  of  God,  wlit^re 
angels  and  archangels,  cherubim  and  seraphim,  celebrate  the 
praises  of  their  sovereign  Lord,  and  stand  ready  to  announce 
his  will,  by  their  rapid  flight  to  the  most  distant  provinces  of 
his  empire.  He  can  descend  from  that  lofty  eminence  to  this 
terrestrial  world,  allotted  for  his  temporary  abode,  and  survey 
another  unbounded  province  of  the  empire  of  God,  in  those 
living  worlds  which  lie  hid  from  the  unassisted  sight,  and 
which  the  microscope  alone  can  descry.  He  can  here  per- 
ceive the  same  Hand  and  Intelligence  which  direct  the  rolling 
worlds  above,  and  marshal  all  the  angelic  tribes — organizing, 
arranging,  and  governing  the  countless  myriads  of  animated 
existence  which  people  the  surface  of  a  muddy  pool.  He  can 
speed  his  course  from  one  of  these  departments  of  Jehovah's 
kingdom  to  another,  till,  astonished  and  overwhehned  with 
the  order,  the  grandeur,  and  extent  of  the  wondrous  scene,  he 
is  constrained  to  exclaim, — "  Great  and  marvellous  are  thy 
works.  Lord  God  Almighty!"  "Thine  understanding  is  infi- 
nite !"  The  limits  of  thy  dominions  are  '•  past  finding  out !" 

By  taking  such  extensive  surveys  of  the  empire  of  Jehovah, 
we  are  enabled  to  perceive  the  spirit  and  references  of  those 
sublime  passages  in  the  sacred  writings,  which  proclaim  the 
majesty  of  God,  and  the  glory  of  his  kingdom.  Such  passages 
are  diffusely  scattered  through  the  inspired  volume,  and  have 
evidently  an  extent  of  reference  far  beyond  what  is  generally 
conceived  by  the  great  mass  of  the  Christian  world.  The  fol- 
lowing may  suffice  as  a  specimen  : 

"Thine,  O  Lord!  is  the  greatness,  and  the  glory,  and  the 
majesty ;  for  all  in  heaven  and  earth  is  thine !  Thine  is  the 
kingdom,  O  Lord  !  Thou  art  exalted  above  all,  thou  reignest 
over  all,  and  in  thy  hand  is  power  and  might! — Behold,  the 
heaven,  and  the  heaven  of  heavens,  is  the  Lord's  ;  the  earth 
also,  with  all  that  therein  is. — Ascribe  ye  greatness  to  our  God  ; 
for  there  is  none  like  unto  the  God  of  Israel,  who  rideth  upon 
the  heavens  in  his  strength,  and  in  his  excellency  in  the  sky. 
Thou,  even  thou  art  Lo;d  alone  :  thou  hast  made  heaven,  the 
heaven  of  heavens,  with  all  their  host ;  the  earth  and  all  things 
that  are  therein  ;  the  sea  and  all  that  is  therein  ;  and  thou  pre- 
serves! them  all,  and  the  host  of  heaven  worshippeth  thee. 


AMPLITUDE  OF  THE  DIVINE  EMPIRE.  359 

He  tlivideth  the  sea  by  his  power ;  by  his  spirit  he  hath  gar- 
nished t!ie  heavens:  Lo  !  these  are  only  parts  of  his  ways; 
but  how  little  a  portion  is  heard  of  him,  and  the  thunder  of  his 
power  who  can  understand  ? — The  Lord  hath  prepared  his 
throne  in  the  heavens,  and  his  king-dom  ruleth  over  all. — O 
Lord  our  God  !  liow  excellent  is  thy  name  in  all  the  earth! 
who  hast  set  tliy  glory  above  the  heavens.  When  I  consider 
thy  heavens,  the  work  of  thy  fingers,  the  moon  and  the  stars, 
which  thou  hast  ordained  ;  what  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful 
of  him! — His  kingdom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom;  honour 
and  majesty  are  before  him  ;  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  are 
reputed  as  nothing  in  his  sight^  and  he  doth  according  to  his 
will  in  the  armies  of  heaven  and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth. — He  measures  the  waters  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand ; 
he  meteth  out  heaven  with  a  span,  and  comprehendeth  the 
dust  of  the  earth  in  a  measure. — He  sitteth  upon  the  circle  of 
the  earth,  and  the  inhabitants  thereof  are  as  grashoppers. — I 
have  made  the  earth,  and  created  man  upon  it ;  1,  even  my 
hands,  have  stretched  out  the  heavens,  and  all  their  host  have 
I  commanded. — The  Most  High  dwelleth  not  in  temples  made 
with  hands;  for  the  heaven  is  his  throne,  and  the  earth  is  his 
footstool.  With  God  is  awful  majesty. — Great  things  doth 
He,  which  we  cannot  comprehend  ;  yea,  the  Lord  sitteth  king 
for  ever. — Praise  ye  the  Lord  in  the  heavens ;  praise  him  in 
the  heights  :  praise  him,  all  his  angels ;  praise  ye  him,  all  his 
hosts.  Praise  him,  sun  and  moon  ;  praise  him,  all  ye  stars  of 
light;  praise  him,  ye  heaven  of  heavens.  Praise  him,  ye  kings 
of  the  earth,  and  all  people,  princes  and  judges  of  the  earth  ; 
both  young  men  and  maidens ;  old  men  and  children — let 
them  praise  the  name  of  the  Lord  ;  for  his  name  alone  is  ex- 
cellent, his  glory  is  above  the  earth  and  heaven." 

These  sublime  descriptions  of  the  supremacy  of  God,  and 
of  the  grandeur  of  his  kingdom,  must  convince  every  reflect- 
ing mind  of  the  inconceivable  magnificence  and  extent  of  that 
dominion  ''  which  ruleth  over  all."  It  is  quite  evident,  that 
we  can  never  enter,  with  intelligence,  into  the  full  import  and 
the  grand  references  of  such  exalted  language  employed  by- 
inspired  writers,  unless  we  take  into  view  all  the  discoveries 
whicli  science  has  made,  both  in  the  earth  and  in  the  heavens, 
respecting  the  variety  and  extent  of  the  dominions  of  the 
Creator.  "  If  the  "  kingdom  of  the  Most  High"  were  as 
limited  in  its  range  as  most  Christians  seem  to  conceive,  such 
descriptions  might  be  considered  as  mere  hyperboles  or  bom- 
bast, or  extravagant  declamation,  which  far  exceed  the  bounds 
of  "  truth  and  soberness."     But  we  are  certain,  that  the  con- 


360  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

ceptions  and  the  language  of  mortals  can  never  go  beyond  the 
reality  of  what  actually  exists  within  the  boundless  precincts 
of  Jehovah's  empire  ;  for  "  who  can  utter  the  mighty  acts  of 
the  Lord  r"  or  "  who  can  show  forth  all  his  praise  ?"  The 
language  and  descriptions  to  which  we  have  now  adverted, 
seem  to  have  had  a  prospective  reference  to  later  and  more 
enlightened  times,  when  more  extensive  prospects  of  God's 
dominions  would  be  opened  up  by  the  exertions  of  the  human 
intellect.  And  were  we  to  search  all  the  records  of  literature, 
in  ancient  or  modern  times,  we  should  find  no  descriptions 
nor  language  of  such  a  dignified  nature  as  to  express  the 
views  and  feelings  of  an  enlightened  Christian  philosopher, 
when  he  contemplates  the  sublimity  and  extent  of  Divine 
operations — except  those  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  inspired 
volume, — the  strength,  and  majesty,  and  comprehension  of 
which  no  human  language  can  ever  exceed. 

Again,  by  familiarizing  our  minds  to  such  extended  pros- 
pects of  God's  universal  kingdom,  we  shall  be  qualified  and 
disposed  to  comply  with  the  injunctions  of  Scripture,  which 
represent  it  as  an  imperious  duty,  to  communicaie  to  the  minds 
of  others  such  elevated  conceptions.  This  duty  is  enjoined  in 
numerous  passages  of  sacred  Scripture,  particularly  in  the 
book  of  Psalms:  ''Declare  his  gloiy  among  the  heathen,  and 
his  v/onders  among  all  people,  J  will  extol  thee,  my  God, 
O  King. — One  generation  shall  praise  thy  works  to  another, 
and  shall  declare  thy  mighty  acts. — I  will  speak  of  the  glo- 
lious  honour  of  thy  majesty,  and  of  thy  wondrous  works. 
And  men  shall  speak  of  the  might  of  thy  terrible  acts  ;  and 
siiall  declare  thy  greatness.  All  thy  works  shall  praise  thee, 
O  Lord  ;  and  thy  saints  shall  bless  thee.  They  shall  speak 
of  the  glory  of  thy  kingdom^  and  talk  of  thy  poiver  ;  to  raake 
knoion  to  the  sons  of  men  thy  mighty  acts.,  and  the  glorious 
majesty  of  thy  kingdom.''''*  When  we  look  around  us  in  the 
world,  and  in  the  visible  church,  and  mark  the  conceptions 
and  the  conversation  of  the  members  of  religious  societies, 
we  need  scarcely  say  how  little  this  ennobling  duty  is  attended 
to  by  the  mass  of  those  who  bear  the  Christian  name.  We 
hear  abundance  of  idle  chat  about  the  fashions  and  the  poli- 
tics of  the  day — about  balls,  horse-races,  court  etiquette,  thea- 
trical amusements,  contested  elections,  the  squabbles  of  corpo- 
rations, sectarian  contentions  and  ecclesiastical  feuds.  We 
listen  to  slanderous  conversation,  and  hear  abundance  of 
mean,  base,  and  uncharitable  insinuations  against  our  neigh- 

*  Psalm  cxlv,  and  xcvi,  3,  4. 


AMPLITUDE  OF  THE   DlVI^fE   EMPIRE.  361 

hours ;  which  indicate  the  operation  of  malice,  hatred,  envy, 
and  other  malignant  dispositions.  We  spend  whole  hours  in 
boisterous  disputations  about  metaphysical  subtilties  in  reli- 
gion, and  questions  ''  which  gender  strife  rather  than  godly 
edifying :"  but  "  to  speak  of  the  glory  of  God's  kingdom,  and 
to  talk  of  his  poweFv,"  with  the  view  of  "  making  known 
to  the  sons  of  men  his  mighty  works,"  is  a  duty  which 
remains  yet  to  be  learned  by  the  majority  of  those  vvho  pro- 
fess the  religion  of  Jesus.  Even  sincere  Christians,  while 
"taking  sweet  counsel  together," — when  conversing  about 
the  love  of  Christ,  and  "  the  deep  things  of  God,"  and  when 
endeavouring  to  cheer  each  other's  spirits  with  the  comforts 
of  religion — seldom  or  never  advert  to  the  visible  works  of 
God,  and  the  displays  of  his  power  and  beneficence,  as  mani- 
fested in  creation,  from  which  they  might  derive  additional 
comfort  and  support  to  their  faith,  hope,  and  joy,  and  more 
expansive  views  of  the  perfections  and  character  of  their 
Father  and  their  Friend.  And  how  can  they  be  supposed  to 
be  qualified  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  such  exercises,  and  to 
proclaim  to  others  "the  glorious  majesty  of  God's  kingdom," 
unless  such  subjects  be  illustrated  in  minute  detail^  and  pro- 
claimed with  becoming  energy,  both  from  the  pulpit  and  from 
the  press  ?  These  powerful  engines,  when  conducted  with 
judgement  and  discrimination,  are  capable  of  producing  on  the 
mass  of  mankind,  a  tone  of  thinking,  and  an  enlargement  of 
conception,  on  such  subjects,  which  no  other  means  can 
easily  effect ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped,  that  more  precise  and 
luminous  details,  and  more  vigour  and  animation,  will  soon  be 
displayed,  in  this  respect,  than  in  the  ages  that  are  past. 

There  is  a  certain  principle  of  selfishness  which  pervades 
the  minds  of  many  professed  religionists,  which  leads  them 
to  conclude,  that,  if  they  can  but  secure  their  own  personal 
salvation^  they  need  give  themselves  no  trouble  about  the 
glory  and  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Most  High.  "  What 
need  we  care,"  say  they,  "  about  nations  in  the  far-distant 
jjarts  of  the  world,  and  about  the  planets  and  the  stars?  our 
business  is  to  attend  to  the  spiritual  interest  of  our  souls." 
Such  persons  seem  neither  to  understand  in  what  salvation 
really  consists,  and  what  is  conducive  to  their  spiritual  inte- 
rests, nor  to  appreciate  those  tempers  and  habits  which  will 
qualify  them  for  the  enjoyment  of  eternal  life.  It  forms  but 
a  very  slender  evidence  of  their  possessing  any  spark  of  Chris- 
tianity at  all,  if  they  wish  to  rest  satisfied  with  the  most  vague 
and  grovelling  conceptions,  and  if  they  do  not  ardently  aspire 
after  a  more  enlarged  view  of  the  attributes  of  God,  of  the 

31 


362  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

glory  of  his  empire,  and  of  whatever  rnay  tend  to  expand  their 
conceptions  of  "  the  inheritance  of  the  saints  in  light."  We 
have  often  been  astonished  at  the  opinions  of  some  of  those 
who  move  in  a  higher  sphere  of  intelligence,  who  seem  to 
consider  it  as  a  matter  of  pure  indifference^  whether  or  not 
Christians  should  attain  to  the  highest  conception  in  their 
power  of  the  God  whom  they  worship,  and  of  his  boundless 
dominions ;  because  they  conceive  that  such  views  are  not 
essentially  connected  with  salvation  !  But  we  would  ask 
such  persons,  how  they  came  to  know  that  such  views  are 
not  connected  with  salvation  ?  Though  they  may  not  have 
been  essential  to  the  salvation  of  men  in  the  dark  ages  that 
are  past,  or  to  obscure  tribes  of  people  at  present,  who  have 
no  access  to  the  proper  sources  of  information,  yet,  since  God, 
in  the  course  of  his  providence,  which  guides  all  human 
inventions  and  discoveries,  has  disclosed  to  us  a  far  more 
expansive  view  of  the  "glory  of  his  kingdom,"  than  former 
ages  could  obtain,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  revela- 
tions of  his  word,  who  will  dare  to  assert,  that  the  man  who 
has  access,  by  his  studious  efforts,  to  contemplate  this  won- 
drous scene,  and  to  display  its  grandeur  to  others,  and  yet 
wilfully  shuts  his  eyes  on  the  Divine  glory  therein  displayed, 
does  not  thereby  hazard  the  Divine  displeasure  ?  In  this 
point  of  view,  the  following  passage  deserves  a  serious  consi- 
deration:  "Because  they  regard  not  the  works  of  the  Lord, 
nor  the  operations  of  his  hands,  he  shall  destroy  them,  and 
not  build  them  up."  We  have  no  hesitation  in  admitting,  that 
persons  may  have  obtained  salvation  who  never  saw  more  of 
the  sacred  writings  than  what  is  contained  in  the  gospel  of 
Mark,  or  in  one  of  Paul's  epistles  ;  but  what  should  we  say 
of  the  man  who  had  access  to  all  the  revelations  of  heaven  we 
now  possess,  and  yet  confined  his  attention  solely  to  a  chapter 
or  two  in  the  New  Testament,  and  would  not  deign  to  look 
into  any  other  part  of  the  inspired  volume  ?  We  should  not 
hesitate  at  once  to  pronounce,  that  such  a  person  was  grossly 
deficient  in  his  duty,  and  devoid  of  that  reverence  and  sub- 
mission which  are  due  to  the  oracles  of  God.  And  if  it  be 
admitted,  that  the  person  who  has  access  to  the  Bible,  and 
who  refuses  to  peruse  its  important  contents,  is  guilty  of  a 
criminal  neglect,  we  do  not  see  how  the  man,  who  has  free 
access  to  the  otlier  volume  of  God's  revelation,  and  views  it 
as  a  matter  of  mere  indifference  whether  he  look  into  it  or  not, 
can  be  deemed  in  this  respect  entirely  innocent.  If  it  be 
understood,  that  we  shall  be  judged  according  to  the  light  and 
privileges  we  enjoy,  and  the  use  we  make  of  them  in  our 


AMPLITUDE  OF  THE   DIVINE   EMPIRE.  363 

improvement  in  the  knowledge  of  God — -we'  would  deem  it 
a  hazardous  position  for  any  one  to  support,  "  That  inatten- 
tion to  the  visible  glories  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  to  the 
'  declaration  of  his  wonders  among  the  people,'  is  a  matter 
either  of  indifference,  or  of  trivial  importance." 

For,  let  it  be  considered,  further — that  ontlie  extent  of  our 
views  respecting  the  universal  kingdom  of  God^  depends  our 
conceptions  of  the  majesty  and.  glory  of  the  Creator  himself 
We  become  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  God,  only  in  so  far 
as  he  has  manifested  himself  to  us  by  external  operations,* 
and  in  so  far  as  we  form  just  conceptions  of  these  operations. 
If  we  conceive  his  empire  as  included  within  the  bounds  of 
eighty  or  ninety  thousand  miles,  our  conception  of  the  Sove- 
reign of  that  empire  will  be  circumscribed  within  nearly  the 
same  limits.  The  mind  of  every  reasonable  man  must,  indeed, 
admit  the  abstract  proposition,  "  That  the  Divine  Being  is 
infinite,  and  consequently  fills  all  space  with  his  presence." 
But  this  infinity,  in  our  view,  is  nothing  more  than  a  vague 
conception  of  empty  space^  extending  a  little  way  beyond  the 
sphere  of  his  visible  operations.  The  mind  must  have  some 
material,  visible  or  tangible  objects  to  rest  upon,  and  to  guide 
it  in  its  excursions,  when  it  would  attempt  to  form  the  most 
definite  and  comprehensive  conceptions  of  an  infinite,  eternal, 
and  invisible  Existence.  For,  however  much  we  may  talk 
about  purely  spiritual  ideas^  it  is  quite  evident,  from  the  na- 
ture of  things,  and  from  the  very  constitution  of  man,  that  we 
can  have  no  ideas  at  all  without  the  intervention  of  sensible 
objects.  And,  therefore,  if  we  would  wish  to  form  the  most 
sublime  conceptions  of  God  himself,  we  must  endeavour,  in  the 
first  place,  to  take  the  most  extensive  views  which  science 
and  revelation  exhibit  of  his  vast  dominions.  We  must  en- 
deavour to  form  some  adequate  idea  of  the  wide  extent  of  the 
globe  on  which  we  dwell,  its  diversified  scenery,  and  the  nu- 
merous tribes  of  human  beings,  and  other  animated  existences, 
visible  and  invisible,  which  people  its  different  provinces.  We 
must  explore  the  vast  regions  of  the  planetary  system,  and 
compare  the  bulk  of  the  earth,  large  as  it  is,  with  some  of 
those  more  magnificent  globes,  which  would  contain  within 
their  circumference  a  thousand  worlds  as  large  as  ours.  We 
must  next  wing  our  way,  in  imagination,  over  a  space  which 
a  cannon-ball,  flying  five  hundred  miles  every  hour,  would 
not  traverse  in  ten  hundred  thousand  years,  till  we  arrive  at 


*  Here  I  include  the  manifestation  of  Deity,  as  exhibited  both  in  Divine 
revelation,  and  in  the  system  of  nature. 


364  CHRlSTlAxV  rHlLOSOPHER. 

the  nearest  fixed  stars,  and  find  ourselves  in  the  centre  of 
thousands  of  systems  and  worlds,  arranged  at  immeasurable 
distances  from  one  another.  We  must  pass  from  one  nebula, 
or  cluster  of  systems,  to  another;  continuing  our  excursions 
as  far  as  the  eye  or  the  telescope  can  direct  our  view ;  and, 
when  the  aid  of  artificial  instruments  begins  to  fail,  our  ima- 
gination must  still  take  its  flight  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of 
mortal  vision,  and  add  system  to  system,  and  nebula  to  nebula, 
through  the  boundless  regions  of  space,  still  we  arrive  at  the 
grand  centre  of  the  universe,  the  Throne  of  God,  around  which 
all  worlds  and  beings  revolve,  where  "  thousands  thousands-' 
of  bright  intelligences  "  minister  to  Him,  and  ten  thousand 
times  ten  thousand  stand  before  Him."  We  must  consider  all 
this  magnificent  assemblage  of  objects,  not  merely  as  so  many 
masses  of  inert  matter,  or  as  a  grand  raree-show,  to  dazzle  the 
eyes  of  a  few  hundreds  of  human  spectators, — but  as  destined 
for  purposes  worthy  of  the  plans  and  intelligence  of  Him  who 
is  '^  the  only  wise  God," — as  peopled  with  numerous  ordere 
of  intelligent  beings,  whose  physical  and  moral  economy  is 
superintended  and  directed  by  Him  who,  at  the  same  time,  ndes 
amidst  the  tumults  of  human  revolutions,  and  governs  the 
living  myriads  which  people  a  drop  of  water. 

In  this  way,  then,  do  we  come  to  acquire  the  most  exten- 
sive views  of  the  amplitude  and  glory  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Most  High ;  and  it  is  only  by  the  same  process  of  thought 
that  we  can  ever  attain  the  most  exalted  conceptions  of  the 
attributes  of  its  Almighty  Sovereign.  For  our  views  of  the 
Sovereign  of  the  universe  must  always  correspond  with  our 
views  of  the  extent  and  magnificence  of  those  dominions 
which  sprung  from  his  creating  Hand,  and  over  which  he  every 
moment  presides.  His  essence  must  for  ever  remain  imper- 
ceptible to  finite  minds ;  for  He  is  ''  the  King  eternal,  immor- 
tal, and  invisible,  dwelling  in  that  light  which  no  man  can  ap- 
proach unto,  whom  no  man  hath  seen,  or  can  see?''  From  his 
nature,  as  a  spiritual  uncompounded  substance,  and  from  his 
immensity,  as  filling  infinite  space  with  his  presence,  it  appears 
impossible,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  that  the  glory  of  his 
perfections  can  be  displayed  in  any  other  way  than  through 
the  medium  of  the  visible  operations  of  his  hands,  or  in  the 
dispensations  of  his  providence  towards  particular  worlds  or 
classes  of  intelligences.  And  if,  in  the  future  world,  the  souls 
of  good  men  shall  enjoy  a  more  glorious  display  than  at  pre- 
sent of  the  attributes  of  Deity,  it  will  be  owing  chiefly  to  their 
being  placed  in  more  favourable  circumstances  than  they  now 
are  for  contemplating  this   display;  to  their  faculties  being 


RANGE  OF  DIVIXE   PROVIDENCE.  365 

more  invigorated ;  and  every  physical  and  moral  impediment 
to  their  exercise  being  completely  removed;  so  as  to  enable 
(hem  to  perceive,  more  clearly  than  they  now  do,  the  unbounded 
displays  he  has  given  of  his  infinite  power,  wisdom,  and  be- 
nevolence. And,  if  we  expect  to  be  introduced  to  this  state 
of  enlarged  vision  when  we  pass  from  the  scenes  of  mortality, 
it  cannot  be  a  matter  of  mere  indifference^  even  now,  whether 
or  not  our  minds  be  prepared  for  such  exalted  employments, 
by  endeavouring  to  form  the  most  ample  conceptions  of  the 
attributes  of  God  which  can  be  obtained  througli  the  medium 
of  his  word,  and  by  a  contemplation  of  the  variety  and  mag- 
nificence of  his  works. 

In  the  prospect  of  that  world  where  we  hope  to  spend  an 
interminable  existence,  it  must  also  be  interesting  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  the  dominions  of  the  universal  Sovereign  pre- 
sent such  an  extent  of  empire,  and  such  a  variety  of  objects, 
that  new  scenes  of  wonder  and  glory  may  be  expected  to  be 
displayed  in  continual  succession,  for  the  contemplation  and 
entertainment  of  holy  beings,  while  eternal  ages  are  rolling 
on.  And,  on  this  point,  the  discoveries  of  science  confirm  and 
illustrate  the  notices  of  heavenly  glory  and  felicity  recorded 
in  the  inspired  volume,  and  lead  us  to  rest  with  full  assurance 
on  the  prophetic  declaration,  that  "  eye  hath  not  seen,  nor 
ear  heard,  nor  hath  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man  to  con- 
ceive, things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him." 

Jll. — By  connecting  the  discoveries  of  science  with  religion^ 
the  minds  of  Christians  would  be  enabled  to  take  a  more 
minute  and  comprehensive  survey  of  the  operations  of 
Providence. 

Providence  is  that  superintendence  and  care  which  God  ex- 
ercises over  all  creatures  and  events,  in  order  to  accomplish 
the  eternal  purposes  of  his  will.  In  creation^  God  brought 
the  universe  out  of  nothing,  and  arranged  all  the  provinces 
and  inhabitants  into  due  order.  By  his  providence,  he  sup- 
ports and  governs  all  the  movements  of  the  material  system, 
and  the  sensitive  and  rational  beings  with  which  it  is  peopled. 
It  is  evident  that,  in  proportion  as  our  views  of  the  Creator's 
dominions  are  extended,  our  views  of  his  providence  will,  to 
a  certain  extent,  be  proportionably  enlarged.  For,  wherever 
worlds  and  beings  exist,  there  will  God  be  found  preserving, 
superintending,  and  governing  the  movements  of  all  creatures 
and  events.  It  is  chiefly,  however,  in  the  world  in  which  we 
reside,  that  the  diversified  dispensations  of  Providence  can  be 

31* 


366  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

distinctly  traced.  Now,  an  acquaintance  with  the  prominent 
parts  of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge  to  which  1  have 
already  adverted,  would  enable  us  to  take  a  particular  and  com- 
prehensive view,  not  only  of  the  ways  of  God  to  man,  but 
also  of  his  arrangements  in  reference  to  all  subordinate  crea- 
tures and  events. 

From  the  inspired  history  of  the  Old  Testament,  we  can 
trace  the  prominent  lines  of  the  dispensations  of  God  towards 
man,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  Israelites  and  the  surround- 
ing nations — from  the  creation  to  a  period  of  about  four  hun- 
dred years  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  But  in  order  to  per- 
ceive the  further  progress  and  bearings  of  these  lines  till  liie 
commencement  of  the  New  Testament  economy,  we  must  have 
recourse  to  the  most  authentic  records  of  profane  history. 
From  the  era  of  the  birth  of  Christ  to  near  the  close  of  tlie 
first  century,  we  can  acquire,  from  the  Evangelists,  and  the 
history  of  the  Apostles,  a  particular  account  of  the  life  of 
Christ,  of  the  events  which  preceded  and  accompanied  the 
finishing  of  the  work  of  redemption,  and  of  the  progress  of 
tlie  Gospel  tlirough  Judea,  and  the  adjacent  countries.  But, 
after  tliis  period,  we  have  no  inspired  guide  to  direct  us  in 
tracing  the  Divine  dispensations  towards  the  various  nations  of 
the  earth ;  and  therefore  we  must  have  recourse  to  the  annals, 
memoirs,  chronicles,  and  other  records  of  the  history  of  na- 
tions, down  to  the  period  in  which  we  live;  otherwise  we 
could  never  contemplate  the  continued  series  of  events  in  the 
Divine  economy  towards  the  inhabitants  of  our  world.  Un- 
less men  of  learning  and  of  observation  had  recorded  the  pro- 
minent facts  which  have  occurred  in  the  history  of  nations, 
for  1700  years  past,  we  must  have  remained  almost  as  ignorant 
of  the  dispensations  of  God  towards  our  race,  during  that  pe- 
riod, as  the  inhabitants  of  the  planet  Saturn  ;  and  unless  we 
study  the  events  thus  recorded  in  the  writings  of  the  historian, 
and  contemplate  their  vaiious  aspects  and  bearings  in  the  light 
of  Divine  revelation,  we  must  still  remain  ignorant  of  the 
grand  movements  and  tendencies  of  Divine  Providence.  This 
single  circumstance  shows,  in  the  clearest  light,  that  it  is  the 
intention  of  God,  that  we  should  learn  the  operations  of  his 
providence  from  the  researches  of  science  and  of  history,  as 
well  as  from  the  records  of  revelation  ;  and  that  the  Scriptures, 
tliough  they  contain  every  supcniahiral  discovery  requisite  to 
our  happiness,  are  not  of  themselves  sufficient  to  present  us 
with  a  connected  view  of  tlie  prominent  dispensations  of 
heaven,  from  the  creation  to  the  period  in  which  we  live. 

From  the  science  of  geography,  we  acquire  a  knowledge  of 


RANGE  OF  DIVINE   PROVIDENCE.  367 

the  extent  of  the  surface  of  the  earth — of  the  various  tribes 
of  human  inhabitants  with  which  it  is  peopled — of  the  phy- 
sical aspect  of  the  different  cHmates  they  inhabit — of  their  arts, 
manners,  customs,  laws,  religion,  vices,  wars,  and  political 
economy  :  and,  consequently,  we  can,  in  these  and  similar 
respects,  trace  some  of  the  aspects  of  Divine  Providence 
towards  them  in  relation  to  their  present  and  future  condition. 
From  the  same  source,  we  learn  the  number  of  human  beings 
which  the  Governor  of  the  world  has  under  his  direction  at 
one  time,  which  is  nearly  a  thousand  millions,  or  about  four 
hundred  times  the  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  Scotland. 
From  the  data  afforded  by  this  science,  we  may  also  form  an 
estimate  of  the  number  of  disembodied  spirits  that  have  passed 
from  this  world  since  the  creation,  and  are  now  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Almighty  in  the  invisible  state,  which 
cannot  be  much  less  than  145,000  millions ;  and,  on  similar 
grounds,  we  may  also  learn  the  number  of  rational  beings 
that  are  coming  forward  into  existence,  and  passing  into  the 
eternal  world  every  day,  which  is  at  least  68,000,  and  conse- 
quently nearly  50  during  each  passing  minute, — every  indivi- 
dual of  which  the  Supreme  Disposer  of  events  superintends  at 
his  entrance  into  life :  and,  at  his  departure  from  it,  directs  to 
his  respective  and  eternal  state  of  destination.  Hence  it 
follows,  that,  could  we  take  a  view  of  the  whole  system  of 
animation  on  our  globe  with  the  eye  of  Omniscience,  or  even 
with  the  penetrating  glance  of  an  angelic  being,  we  should 
behold  every  hour  thousands  of  human  and  other  animated 
beings  incessantly  emerging  into  existence,  and  thousands,  at 
the  same  time,  departing  into  an  unseen  world,  under  a  vast 
diversity  of  circumstances  •,  and  this  succession  and  exit  of 
living  beings  will  incessantly  go  forward  from  age  to  age,  till 
all  the  designs  of  Providence  in  relation  to  our  world  be  fully- 
accomplished.  All  which  circumstances,  and  many  others  of 
a  similar  kind,  must  be  taken  into  account,  in  order  to  our 
forming  a  comprehensive  conception  of  the  numerous  bearings, 
and  the  incessant  agency  of  a  superintending  Providence. 

From  natural  history  we  learn  the  immense  number  and 
variety  of  subordinate  tribes  of  animated  beings  which  inhabit 
the  different  regions  of  earth,  air,  and  sea — their  economy  and 
instincts — their  modes  of  existence,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  Creator  provides  for  their  various  necessities. — From  an 
acquaintance  with  the  history  of  the  arts  and  mechanical  in- 
ventions^ we  learn  the  gradual  manner  in  which  God  directs 
the  movements  of  the  human  mind,  in  making  those  improve- 
ments and  discoveries  which  have  a  bearing  upon  the  accom- 


368  CHRISTIAN    PHILOSOPHER. 

plishment  of  liis  eternal  plans  of  mercy,  and  which  tend  to 
enlarge  our  views  of  the  amplitude  and  the  glories  of  his 
kingdom. — From  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  we  learn 
the  secondary  causes  or  subordkiate  laws  by  which  the  Al- 
mighty supports  and  directs  the  natural  constitution  of  the 
world — the  wonderful  manner  in  which  our  lives  are  every 
moment  supported — and  the  agencies  by  which  fire,  air,  light, 
heat,  and  fertility  are  distributed  through  the  globe,  for  pro- 
moting the  comfort  and  happiness  "  of  every  thing  that  lives." 
From  anatomy  and  physiology  we  learn  how  "fearfully  and 
wonderfully  we  are  made  and  preserved" — that  our  health  and 
comfort  depend  upon  the  regular  action  of  a  thousand  orga- 
nical  parts  and  functions,  over  which  we  have  no  control — and 
that  our  very  existence  every  moment  is  dependent  on  the 
superintendence  of  a  Superior  Power,  "  in  whose  hand  our 
breath  is,  and  whose  are  all  our  ways." 

By  an  occasional  study,  then,  of  the  subjects  to  which  we 
have  now  alluded,  M-e  might  gradually  expand  our  conceptions 
of  the  range  and  operation  of  Divine  Providence.  Every 
geographical  exploration  of  a  new  region  of  the  globe — every 
scientific  improvement  and  discovery — every  useful  invention 
— every  eruption  of  a  volcano — every  shock  of  an  earthquake 
— every  hurricane,  and  storm,  and  tempest — every  batde  of 
the  warrior- — every  revolution  among  the  nations — and  every 
detail  in  the  newspapers  we  daily  read,  would  lead  us  to  form 
some  conceptions  of  the  providential  purposes  of  Him  who 
is  the  Supreme  Disposer  of  all  events.  Even  the  arrange- 
ments of  Divine  Wisdom,  widi  regard  to  the  economy  of  the 
lower  animals,  ought  not  to  be  overlooked  in  such  a  survey. 
When  we  consider  the  immense  number  and  variety  of  ani- 
mated beings — that  there  are  600  species  of  quadrupeds,  every 
species  containing,  perhaps,  many  millions  of  individuals  ; 
4000  species  of  birds;  3000  species  of  fishes  ;  700  species  of 
reptiles  ;  44,000  different  kinds  of  insects,  besides  many  thqi^- 
saiuls  of  species  altogether  invisible  to  the  unassisted  sight — 
when  we  consider  that  the  structure  and  organization  of  all 
these  different  species  are  different  from  each  other,  and  ex- 
actly adapted  to  their  various  situations  and  modes  of  exist- 
ence, and  that  their  multifarious  wants,  in  regard  to  food  and 
habitation,  are  all  provided  for,  and  amply  supplied  by  Him, 
who,  at  the  same  time,  arranges  and  governs  the  affairs  of  ten 
thousand  worlds — we  must  be  lost  in  astonishment  at  the 
greatness  of  the  Intelligence  which  formed  them,  and  at  the 
exuberance  of  ihat  bounty  which  spreads  so  full  a  table  for  so 
immense  an  assemblage  of  living  beings  !  And  were  we  trans- 


RANGE  OF  DIVINE   PROVIDENCE.  369 

ported  to  other  worlds,  we    should,  doubtless,  behold   still 
more  ample  displays  of  Divine  beneficence. 

We  are  here  presented  with  a  striking  commentary  on  such 
passages  of  the  sacred  volume  as  these:  "The  eyes  of  all 
look  unto  thee,  O  Lord  !  and  thou  givest  them  their  meat  in 
due  season.  Thou  openest  thy  hand  liberally,  and  satisliest 
the  desire  of  every  living  thing.  The  earth  is  full  of  thy 
riches,  O  Lord  !  so  is  the  great  and  wide  sea,  wherein  are 
things  creeping  innumerable,  both  great  and  small  beasts. 
These  all  wait  upon  thee,  and  thou  givest  them  their  meat 
in  due  season.  That  which  thou  givest  them  they  gather : 
Thou  openest  thine  hand,  they  are  filled  with  good." — '•'■  O 
Lord,  thou  preservest  man  and  beast !  How  excellent  is 
thy  loving  kindness  I  Therefore  the  children  of  men  shall 
put  their  trust  under  the  shadow  of  thy  wings.  They  shall 
be  abundantly  satisfied  with  the  fatness  of  thy  house, "^'  (of 
the  table  thou  hast  spread  in  thy  world  for  all  thy  offspring,) 
"  and  thou  shalt  make  them  drink  of  the  river  of  thy  plea- 
sures." One  excellent  practical  effect  which  might  flow  from 
such  contemplations  would  be,  to  inspire  us  with  feelings  of 
humanity  towards  the  inferior  order  of  animals,  and  to  pre- 
vent us  from  wantonly  and  unnecessarily  torturing,  or  djpriv- 
ing  them  of  existence.  For,  since  the  Creator  and  Preserver 
of  all  has  so  curiously  organized  their  bodies,  and  fitted  them 
for  the  difTerent  regions  in  which  they  reside,  and  so  carefully 
provided  for  all  their  wants,  it  must  be  His  will  that  they 
should  enjoy  happiness  according  to  the  extent  of  their  capa- 
cities ;  and,  therefore,  they  ought  to  be  considered  as  neces- 
sary parts  of  our  sublunary  system.  Another  practical  lesson 
we  may  derive  from  such  surveys  is,  to  place  an  unshaken 
dependence  upon  God  for  our  temporal  subsistence,  while  we, 
at  the  same  time,  exert  all  our  faculties  in  the  line  of  active 
duty.  "  Blessed  is  the  man  who  trusteth  in  him  ;  for  there  is 
no  want  to  them  that  fear  him.  The  young  lions  may  sufTer 
hunger,  but  they  that  fear  the  Lord  shall  not  want  any  good 
thing."  He  who  decks  the  lily  of  the  vale,  and  spreads  out 
a  plentiful  table  to  the  fowls  of  heaven,  to  the  beasts  of  the 
forest,  to  the  creeping  insect,  and  even  to  the  microscopic  ani- 

*  This,  and  several  other  similar  passages,  may  be  considered  as  more 
especially  applicable  to  the  bounty  of  providence  which  God  has  provided 
for  all  his  creatures,  'i'he  praciice  oi  spirit uaVizing  such  passages,  as  it  is 
termed,  has  a  tendency  to  caricature  Scripture,  and  to  twist  it  from  i's  pre- 
cise and  sublime  references,  to  accord  with  the  vague  fancies  of  injudii'iivis 
minds.  The  literal  meaning  of  Scripture  is  always  the  most  appropriate, 
emphatic,  and  sublime ;  but  it  may,  in  some  cases,  be  used  by  way  of 
accommodation,  in  illustrating  divine  subjects,  when  it  is  applied  with 
judgement  and  discrimination. 


370  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

malculum,  will  never  fail  to  supply  the  necessary  wants  of 
those  who  "  do  His  will,  and  hearken  to  the  voice  of  His 
commandments."  And  if,  at  any  time,  we  be  found  destitute 
of  daily  food,  and  pining  away  in  penury  and  squalid  disease, 
we  have  too  much  reason  to  conclude,  that  in  one  way  or  an- 
other, either  our  deviation  from  the  path  of  rectitude,  or  our 
distrust  of  Divine  Providence,  or  our  want  of  prudence  and 
economy,  has  procured  for  us  these  things. 

[  have  said  that  it  is  chiefly  in  the  world  in  which  we 
dwell  that  the  dispensations  of  Providence  can  be  distinctly 
traced.  But  we  must  nevertheless  admit,  that  the  care  and 
superintendence  of  God  are  as  minutely  exercised  in  the  dis- 
tant regions  of  the  universe,  as  in  our  terrestrial  sphere  ;  though 
we  are  not  permitted,  at  present,  to  inspect  the  particular 
details  of  His  procedure  in  reference  to  other  orders  of  intel- 
ligences. We  are  not,  however,  altogether  ignorant  of  some 
prominent  features  of  the  physical  and  moral  economy  of 
other  worlds,  in  consequence  of  the  discoveries  of  modern 
astronomical  science. 

With  respect  to  their  physical  economy,  we  behold  a 
striking  variety  in  the  Divine  arrangements.  We  perceive 
one  planetary  world  surrounded  by  two  splendid  and  magni- 
ficent rings,  one  of  them  204,000,  and  the  other  184,000  miles 
ill  diameter,  stretching  across  its  celestial  canopy  from  one 
end  of  the  heavens  to  another — moving  with  majestic  gran- 
deur around  its  inhabitants  every  ten  hours,  and  diffusing  a 
light  equal  to  several  thousands  of  moons  like  ours — which 
may  be  considered  as  a  visible  and  permanent  emblem  of  the 
majesty  and  glory  of  their  Creator.  We  perceive,  connected 
with  the  same  globe,  seven  moons  all  larger  than  ours,  of  dif- 
ferent magnitudes,  and  placed  at  different  distances,  and  revolv- 
ing in  different  periods  of  time  around  that  spacious  world. 
The  diversified  aspects  of  these  rings,  as  viewed  from  the 
different  regions  of  the  planet  at  different  times,  and  the  variety 
of  appearances  produced  by  the  alternate  rising,  setting,  cul- 
mination, and  frequent  eclipses,  and  other  aspects  of  the 
moons,  must  present  to  the  inhabitants  a  very  grand,  and 
diversified,  and  magnificent  scene  of  Divine  operation.*  On 
the  other  hand,  we  behold  another  planetary  globe,  destitute 
both  of  rings  and  moons,  but  which  has  the  starry  heavens 
presented  to  view  nearly  in  the  same  aspect  in  which  we 
behold  them.  We  perceive  a  third  globe  much  larger  than 
both  these  capable  of  containing  200  times  the  number  of  the 

*  See  the  plate,  fig.  7. 


RANGE  OF  DIVINE  PROVIDENCE.  371 

inhabitants  of  our  v/orld—accompanied  in  its  course  with 
four  moons  to  diffuse  light  in  the  absence  of  the  sun,  and  to 
diversify  the  aspect  of  its  sky.  \n  some  of  these  worlds,  the 
succession  of  day  and  night  is  accomplished  within  the  space 
of  ten  hours  ;  in  others,  this  revolution  is  not  completed  till 
after  the  lapse  of  twenty-four  hours,  or  of  as  many  days.  In 
some,  the  days  and  nights  are  nearly  equal  on  every  part  of 
iheir  surface,  and  they  have  little  variety  of  seasons;  in 
others,  the  variety  in  the  length  of  the  days,  and  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  seasons,  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  we  expe- 
rience in  our  terrestrial  world.  Around  some,  there  appears  a 
dense  atmosphere,  while  others  are  environed  with  atmo- 
spheres more  rare  and  transparent.  Some  move  in  the  vici- 
nity of  the  sun,  and  enjoy  an  abundant  efflux  of  light  and 
heat,  while  others  are  removed  to  the  distance  of  eighteen 
hundred  millions  of  miles  from  that  central  luminary.  Some 
finish  the  revolution  of  their  year  in  a  few  months ;  while 
others  require  twelve,  thirty,  or  even  eighty  of  our  years  to  com- 
plete their  annual  round.  Some  appear  adorned  with  majestic 
mountain  scenery,  and  others  seem  to  have  great  changes 
occasionally  taking  place  in  their  atmospheres,  or  on  their 
surfaces.  There  are  four  planetary  bodies  lately  discovered, 
which,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  once  formed  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  a  larger  globe  ;  but  by  some  mighty  catas- 
trophe in  the  dispensations  of  Heaven,  it  appears  to  have  been 
burst  asunder  into  the  fragments  we  now  behold.  If  the 
general  proposition  illustrated  in  Section  II.  of  the  preceding 
chapter  be  admitted,  such  a  fact  would  seem  to  indicate,  that 
a  moral  revolution  has  taken  place  among  the  intelligent 
beings  who  had  originally  been  placed  in  those  regions ;  and 
that  their  fate  was  involved  in  the  dreadful  shock  which  burst 
asunder  the  globe  they  had  inhabited,  just  as  the  fate  of  the 
antediluvians  was  involved  in  the  shock  by  which  the  solid 
crust  of  our  globe  was  disrupted,  at  the  period  of  the  universal 
deluge. 

These  are  some  outlines  in  the  economy  of  Providence 
which  we  can  trace  with  regard  to  the  arrangements  of  other 
worlds  ;  but  beyond  such  general  aspects  we  are  not  per- 
mitted to  penetrate,  so  long  as  we  sojourn  in  tabernacles  of 
clay.  But  even  such  general  views  afford  some  scope  to  the 
contemplative  mind,  for  forming  enlarged  conceptions  of  the 
grandeur  and  diversity  of  the  dispensations  of  God,  in  the 
worlds  which  roll  in  the  distant  regions  of  space. 

With  regard  to  their  moral  ecouQmy — we  may  rest  assured, 
that  the  prominent  outlines  of  it  are  materially  the  same  as  of 


372  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

that  economy  which  relates  to  the  inhabitants  of  our  world. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  the  moral  laws  given  to  men, 
and  which  it  is  the  great  object  of  revelation  to  support  and 
illustrate,  are,  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all 
thy  heart  and  understanding,"  and,  "  Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbour  as  thyself"  On  these  two  commandments  hang 
all  the  law  and  the  prophets.  Now,  we  must  at  once  admit, 
from  the  nature  of  the  IDivine  Being,  and  from  the  relations 
in  which  rational  beings  stand  to  Him,  and  to  one  another, — 
that  the  Creator  has  enacted  these  laws,  as  the  great  govern- 
ing principles,  by  which  the  actions  of  all  intelligences  in 
heaven,  as  well  us  upon  earth,  are  to  be  directed.  For  the 
Governor  of  the  world  can  never  be  supposed  to  issue  a  law 
to  any  order  of  rational  creatures,  which  would  permit  them 
to  haie  their  Creator,  or  to  hate  those  whom  he  has  formed 
after  his  own  image.  Such  a  supposition  would  be  incon- 
sistent with  the  eternal  rules  of  rectitude,  and  with  the  per- 
fections of  Deity  •,  and  the  fact  supposed,  (if  it  could  exist,) 
would  introduce  confusion  and  misery  throughout  the  whole 
intelligent  universe.  And,  therefore,  we  must  necessarily 
admit,  that  the  laws  to  which  I  now  advert  are  binding  upon 
all  the  rational  inhabitants  which  exist  throughout  Jehovah's 
dominions ;  and  that  it  is  by  these  that  the  moral  order  of  all 
principalities  and  powers  of  heaven  is  preserved  and  directed. 
In  those  worlds  where  there  is  no  change  in  the  succession 
of  their  inhabitants — or,  in  other  words,  where  there  is  no 
death,  or  where  they  are  not  produced  by  any  process  analo- 
gous to  generation,  but  have  a  fixed  and  permanent  residence 
— there  will  be  no  need  for  moral  precepts  corresponding  to 
the  fifth  and  the  seventh  commandments  of  our  moral  law  ; 
and  in  those  worlds  where  property  is  common,  and  the 
bounties  of  the  Creator  are  equally  enjoyed  by  all,  there  will 
be  no  necessity  for  a  law  corresponding  to  the  eighth  com- 
mandment ;  but  the  general  principles  on  which  these  laws 
are  founded  will  be  applicable  to  all  the  other  circumstances 
and  relations  which  actually  exist :  so  that  the  principle^  and 
spirit^  and  essence  of  our  religion,  must  be  common  to  all  the 
holy  inhabitants  of  the  universe.  And,  therefore,  it  will  follow, 
that  every  intelligent  being  that  is  animated  and  directed  by 
such  principles  and  affections,  will  be  qualified  for  holding 
delightful  intercourse  with  all  hoi}'-  beings  throughout  the 
universe  of  God,  in  whatever  province  of  the  Creator's  empire 
he  may  hereafter  be  placed ;  and,  to  qualify  us  for  such  har- 
monious and  affectionate  intercourses,  is  one  great  end  of  the 
salvation  exhibited  in  the  Gospel.     So  that,  although  we  can- 


EXPANSION  OF  INTELLECTUAL  VIEWS.  373 

not,  in  our  present  state,  acquire  a  minute  and  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  moral  history  of  other  worlds,  of  the  special 
interpositions  or  manifestations  of  Deity  in  relation  to  them, 
or  of  the  means  by  which  they  are  carried  forward  in  moral 
and  intellectual  improvement — yet  we  can  trace  the  general 
principles  or  lawsAvhich  form  the  basis  of  their  moral  and  re- 
ligions economy.  For,  as  the  laws  of  optics,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  gravitation,  pervade  the  whole  material  system,  as 
far  as  the  universe  is  visible  to  our  assisted  vision — so  the 
principle  of  supreme  love  to  God,  and  sincere  affection  to 
fellow-intelligences,  must  pervade  the  intellectual  universe 
wherever  it  extends ;  and  if  any  intelligent  agents  besides 
men  have  violated  these  laws,  they  must  experience  pain, 
and  misery,  and  disorder,  analogous  to  those  which  are  felt 
by  the  inhabitants  of  our  apostate  world. 

Thus  1  have  endeavoured  to  show,  that  the  combination  of 
science  with  religion,  would  tend  to  expand  our  views  of  Di- 
vine Providence — in  the  various  arrangements  of  God,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  human  race,  and  to  the  subordinate  tribes  of  sensitive 
beings — and  in  reference  to  some  of  the  prominent  features  of 
his  administration  in  distant  worlds.  And,  therefore,  though 
the  Christian  ought  never  to  overlook  the*ways  of  Providence 
in  relation  to  himself,  and  to  his  spiritual  and  domestic  con- 
cerns, yet  it  would  argue  a  selfishness  and  a  sottishness,  alto- 
gether inconsistent  with  the  noble  and  expansive  spirit  of 
Christianity,  to  overlook  all  the  other  parts  of  the  theatre  of 
Divine  dispensations,  when  a  very  slight  degree  of  labour 
and  research  might  be  instrumental  in  unfolding  them  to 
his  view. 

IV. —  The  connexion  of  science  with  religion  would  have  a 
tendency  to  induce  upon  Christians  a  spirit  of  liberality, 

0/ CANDOUR,  and  of  ACCVRACY  IN  JUDGING  OF  THE  OPI- 
NIOxNS  AND  ACTIONS  OF  MEN,  and  o/"  THE  DiVINE  PROCE- 
DURE  AND  OPERATIONS. 

Who  is  the  most  candid  and  liberal  Being  in  the  universe  ? 
God.  And  why  is  God  to  be  considered  the  most  liberal  In- 
telligence that  exists  ?  Because  He  embraces  a  minute,  a  full, 
and  comprehensive  view  of  all  the  circumstances,  connexions, 
relations,  habits,  motives,  temptations,  modes  of  thinking,  edu- 
cational biases,  physical  affections,  and  other  causes,  that  may 
influence  the  sentiments  or  the  conduct  of  any  of  his  crea- 
tures. Who,  among  created  intelligences  may  be  viewed  as 
endowed  with  these  qualities  in  the  next  degree  ?    The  loftiest 

32 


374  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER, 

seraph  that  God  has  created,  Avho  has  winged  his  way  to  nu- 
merous worlds,  and  taken  the  most  extensive  surve}^  of  the 
dispensations  of  the  Almighty,  and  of  all  creatures  and  events. 
Who,  among  the  sons  of  men,  is  the  most  illiberal  and  inaccu- 
rate in  judging  of  opinions,  of  persons,  and  of  things  ?  The 
man  who  has  lived  all  his  days  within  the  smoke  of  his  father's 
chimney,  or  within  the  confines  of  his  native  village — who 
has  never  looked  beyond  the  range  of  his  own  religious  party 
■ — whose  thoughts  have  always  run  in  one  narrow  track — 
whose  reading  has  been  confined  to  two  or  three  musty  vo- 
lumes, which  have  lain  for  ages  on  the  same  smoky  shelf — 
who  cares  for  nothing  either  in  the  heavens  or  the  earth,  but 
in  so  far  as  it  ministers  to  his  convenience,  his  avarice,  or  his 
sensual  enjoyment — who  will  admit  no  sentiment  to  be  true,  but 
what  he  may  have  heard  broached  by  his  parson — and  whose 
conversation  seldom  rises  beyond  mere  gossiping  chit-chat, 
and  the  slanderous  remarks  which  are  circulated  among  his 
neighbours.  Such  characters  are  entirely  unqualified  for  form- 
ing a  correct  judgement,  either  of  the  sentiments  and  the  ac- 
tions of  men,  or  of  the  works  and  the  ways  of  God  ;  for  th«y 
are  completely  destitute  of  the  requisite  data  whereon  to 
form  a  rational  decision  in  relation  to  either  of  these  subjects. 
It  may  be  admitted  as  a  kind  of  axiom,  in  our  estimate  of 
human  character,  that,  in  proportion  to  the  ignorance,  and  the 
narrow  range  of  view,  w^hich  characterize  any  individual,  in  a 
similar  proportion  will  be  his  want  of  candour,  and  his  unfit- 
ness for  passing  a  sound  judgement  on  any  subject  that  is  laid 
before  him — and  that  the  man  who  has  taken  excursions 
through  the  widest  range  of  thought,  accompanied  with  a  cor- 
responding improvement  of  his  moral  powers,  will  always  be 
the  most  liberal  and  candid  in  his  decisions  on  the  moral  and 
intellectual  qualities  of  others.  To  these  maxims,  few  excep- 
tions will  generally  be  found.  In  forming  an  enlightened 
judgement  in  regard  to  any  action  or  object,  it  is  essentially 
requisite,  that  we  contemplate  it  in  all  its  different  features  and 
aspects,  and  in  all  its  minute  circumstances,  bearings,  and  rela- 
tions. We  would  not  hesitate  for  a  moment  to  determine  who 
is  best  qualified  to  give  an  accurate  description  of  a  city, — he 
who  has  only  viewed  its  spires  from  a  distance,  while  in  rapid 
motion  in  his  chariot — or  he  who  has  minutely  surveyed  all 
its  streets,  lanes,  squares,  public  edifices,  and  surrounding 
scenery,  in  every  variety  of  aspect ;  or,  who  appears  most 
likely  to  form  the  most  accurate  and  enlightened  judgement 
in  relation  to  any  particular  kingdom, — he  who  has  just  skirted 
along  a  few  miles  in  one  of  its  coasts,  or  he  who  has  traversed 


EXPANSION  OF  INTELLECTUAL  VIEWS.  375 

its  length  and  breadth  in  all  directions,  and  mingled  with  every 
cIhss  of  its  inhabitants.  On  the  same  principle  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted, that  he  who  has  viewed  religion  in  all  its  aspects  and 
bearings,  who  has  taken  the  most  extensive  survey  of  the  ma- 
iiifestations  of  God,  and  of  the  habits  and  relations  of  men, 
is  the  best  qualified  to  pronounce  a  candid  and  accurate  deci- 
sion on  all  the  intellectual  and  moral  cases  that  may  come 
before  him. 

If  the  spirit  of  the  above-stated  sentiments  be  founded  on 
reason  and  on  fact,  it  will  follow,  that  the  more  we  resemble 
God  in  tlie  amplitude  of  our  intellectual  views  and  benevolent 
alfections,  the  more  candid,  and  liberal,  and  accurate  will  our 
judgements  be,  in  reference  to  all  the  actions,  objects,  and  re- 
lations we  contemplate.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  is 
confined  to  a  narrow  range  of  thought  and  prospect,  is  con- 
tinually blundering  in  the  estimates  he  forms,  both  in  respect 
to  physical  facts,  to  general  principles,  and  to  moral  actions. 
He  forms  a  premature  and  uncharitable  opinion  on  every  slan- 
der and  report  against  his  neighbour,  lie  condemns  without 
hesitation,  and  throws  an  unmerited  odium  on  whole  bodies 
of  men,  because  one  or  two  of  their  number  may  have  displayed 
weakness  or  folly.  He  hates  and  despises  men  and  their  opi- 
nions, because  they  belong  not  to  his  political  or  religious 
party.  He  pronounces  his  decisions  on  the  motives  of  men, 
with  as  much  confidence  as  if  he  had  surveyed  their  hearts 
with  the  eye  of  Omniscience.  He  cannot  hear  an  objection 
against  his  favourite  opinions  with  patience,  nor  an  apology  for 
any  set  of- principles  but  his  own.  He  is  arrogant  and  dog- 
matical in  his  assertions,  and  will  make  no  concessions  to  the 
superior  wisdom  of  others.  He  sets  himself,  with  violence, 
against  every  proposal  for  reformation  in  the  church,  because 
his  forefatliers  never  thought  of  it,  and  because  such  "  innova- 
tions" do  not  suit  his  humour  and  preconceived  opinions.  He 
decides,  in  the  most  confident  tone,  on  what  God  can  and  can- 
not do,  as  if  he  had  taken  the  gauge  of  infinite  perfection  ;  and 
he  frets  at  the  Divine  dispensations,  when  they  do  not  exactly 
quadrate  with  his  own  humours  and  selfish  views. 

With  regard  to  the  operations  of  the  Most  High,  he  also 
forms  the  most  foolish,  and  vague,  and  contradictory  concep- 
tions. Tell  him  of  the  vast  dimensions  of  the  planetary  sys- 
tem, of  the  men  and  animals  that  live  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  globe,  of  the  annual  and  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth — that 
this  world  and  its  inhabitants  are  moving  through  the  regions 
of  space  many  thousands  of  miles  every  hour — that  one  of 
the  planets  is  so  large  that  it  would  contain  fourteen  hundred 


376  CHRISTIAN   PHILOSOPHER. 

worlds  as  spacious  as  ours — that  another  is  flying  tli rough  the 
tracts  of  immensity  at  the  rate  of  a  hundred  thousand  miles  in 
an  hour — and  that  liglit  is  darted  from  the  sun  with  a  velocity 
of  one  hundred  and  ninety-two  thousand  miles  in  a  moment 
of  time, — he  will  stare  at  you  with  astonishment  at  such  ex- 
travagant assertions,  and  will  sooner  believe  the  stories  of 
giants  one  hundred  feet  high,  and  of  fairies  that  can  enter  in 
crowds  through  the  keyhole  of  his  door.  Instead  of  frankly 
acknowledging  that  "  he  is  ignorant  of  such  subjects,  and  of 
the  grounds  of  such  conclusions — that  those  who  have  studied 
them  with  intelligence  are  best  capable  of  judging — that,  if 
true,  they  must  fill  us  with  admiration  of  the  glory  of  God — 
but  that,  as  he  has  hitherto  had  no  opportunity  of  examining 
such  matters,  he  must  suspend  his  assent  till  he  inquire  into 
tlie  reasons  which  can  be  given  for  such  amazing  deductions." 
Instead  or  such  concessions,  which  are  the  dictates  of  modesty 
and  of  common  sense — he  Avill  tell  you  at  once,  without  hesi- 
tation, and  without  a  blush  at  his  presumptuous  decisions,  that 
"it  is  all  extravagance,  and  folly,  and  idle  romance,  contrary 
to  Scripture,  and  reason,  and  common  sense;"  and  will  not 
hesitate  to  brand  you  as  a  heretic,  for  endeavouring  to  break 
loose  his  intellectual  trammels  !  thus  tacitly  declaring,  that  he 
is  far  better  qualified  to  pronounce  a  decision  on  such  topics, 
than  all  the  philosophers  and  divines,  and  all  the  brightest 
geniuses  who  have  appeared  in  the  world  for  ages  past ; 
though  he  wall  at  the  same  time  admit,  that  he  never  gave 
himself  the  trouble  to  examine  into  such  matters ! 

His  view^s  of  the  providential  dispensations  of  God  are 
equally  partial  and  distorted.  If  disease,  or  poverty,  or  mis- 
fortune, happen  to  his  neighbour,  especially  if  he  had  with- 
drawn from  the  religious  party  to  which  he  belongs,  it  is 
considered  as  a  penal  judgement  for  his  error  and  apostacy. 
If  prosperous  circumstances  attended  his  family  or  his  reli- 
gious party,  it  is  viewed  as  a  sign  of  Divine  approbation.  He 
seldom  views  the  hand  of  God,  except  in  uncommon  occur- 
rences ;  and  then,  he  imagines  that  a  miracle  is  performed,  and 
that  the  wheels  of  nature  are  stopped  in  order  to  accomplish 
the  event.  He  seldom  looks  beyond  the  precincts  of  his  own 
church  or  nation,  to  observe  the  movements  of  the  Divine 
footsteps  towards  other  tribes  of  his  fallen  race.  He  overlooks 
the  traces  of  Divine  operation  which  are  every  moment  to  be 
seen  above  and  around  him — and  yet,  in  the  midst  of  all  such 
partial  and  contracted  views,  he  will  sometimes  decide  on  the 
wisdom  and  rectitude  of  the  ways  of  God,  with  as  much  con- 
fidence, as  if  he  had  entered  into  the  secret  councils  of  the 
Eternal,  and  surveyed  the  whole  plan  of  his  procedure. 


EXPANSION  OF  INTELLECTUAL   VIEWS.  377 

Such  are  a  few  prominent  outlines  of  the  character  of  thou- 
sands, wliose  names  are  enrolled  as  members  of  the  visible 
church, — whose  illiberality  and  self-conceit  are  owing  to  the 
contracted  notions  they  have  formed  of  God  and  of  religion. 
And,  surely,  it  must  appear  desirable  to  every  enlightened 
Christian,  that  every  proper  mean  should  be  used  to  prevent 
rational  immortal  beings  from  remaining  enchained  in  such 
mental  thraldom. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who  takes  an  enlightened  view 
of  all  the  works  and  dispensations  of  God,  and  of  all  the  cir- 
cumstances and  relations  of  subordinate  beings,  necessarily 
acquires  a  nobleness  and  liberality  of  mind,  and  an  accuracy 
in  judging  of  things  human  and  divine,  which  no  other  person 
can  possess.  He  does  not  hastily  take  up  an  evil  report  against 
his  neighbour;  for  he  considers  how  unfounded  such  reports 
often  are,  and  how  much  they  are  owing  to  the  insinuations 
of  envy  or  of  malice.  And,  when  he  can  no  longer  doubt  of 
an  evil  action  being  substantiated  against  any  one,  he  does  not 
triumph  over  him  in  the  language  of  execration ;  for  he  con- 
siders all  the  circumstances,  relations,  feelings,  and  temptations 
with  which  he  may  have  been  surrounded;  he  considers,  that 
he  himself  is  a  frail  sinful  creature,  and  might  possibly  have 
fallen  in  a  similar  way,  had  he  been  placed  in  the  same  situ- 
ation. He  does  not  trumpet  forth  the  praises  of  a  man  who 
has  performed  ojie  brilliant  benevolent  deed,  as  if  he  were  a 
character  to  be  admired  and  eulogized — while  the  general 
course  of  his  life  is  marked  with  vice,  and  an  utter  forgetful- 
ness  of  God  and  religion  ;  nor  does  he  fix  a  stigma  of  immo- 
rality upon  the  person  who  may  have  acted  foolishly  or  sin- 
fully in  one  or  two  instances,  while  the  general  tenor  of  his 
conduct  has  been  marked  by  purity  and  rectitude:  for,  in  both 
cases,  he  considers,  that  it  is  not  an  isolated  action^  but  gene- 
ral habits^  which  determine  the  character  of  any  individual. 
He  esteems  the  wise  and  the  good,  and  holds  friendly  inter- 
course with  them,  to  whatever  political  or  religious  party  they 
belong.  He  can  bear,  with  afiability  and  candour,  to  have  his 
opinions  contradicted,  and  can  differ  from  his  neighbour  in 
many  disputed  points,  while  at  the  same  time  he  values  and  es- 
teems him.  He  will  not  brand  a  man  as  a  heretic  or  a  deist, 
because  he  takes  a  view  of  some  dogmas  in  theology  in  a  diffe- 
rent light  from  what  he  himself  does ;  for  he  considers  the 
difference  of  habits,  studies,  pursuits,  and  educational  preju- 
dices, which  must  have  influenced  his  opinions  ;  and  makes  due 
allowance  for  the  range  of  thought  to  which  he  may  have  been 
accustomed.     He  is  always  disposed  to  attribute  the  actions  of 

32* 


378  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

others  to  good  motives,  when  he  has  no  proof  of  the  contrary. 
He  uses  no  threats  nor  physical  force  to  support  his  opinions, 
or  to  convince  gainsayers  ;  for  he  knows  that  no  external  coer- 
cion can  illuminate  the  mind,  and  that  the  strength  of  arguments, 
and  the  force  of  truth,  can  alone  produce  conviction.  He  is  con- 
vinced how  ignorant  he  is,  notwithstanding  all  his  study,  ob- 
servations, and  researches,  and  presses  forward,  as  long  as  he 
lives,tohigherdegreesofknowledge  and  of  moral  improvement. 

He  is  an  active  promoter  of  every  scheme  that  tends  to  en- 
lighten and  meliorate  mankind,  and  to  extend  the  knowledge 
of  salvation  to  the  ends  of  the  earth ;  for  he  considers  that  it 
is  not  by  miracles,  but  by  the  subordinate  agency  of  intelli- 
gent beings,  that  God  will  effectuate  the  illumination  and  the 
moral  renovation  of  our  apostate  race.  He  views  the  special 
agency  of  God  in  all  the  movements  of  the  scientific,  the  reli- 
gious, and  the  political  world,  and  perceives  Him  accomplish- 
ing his  purpose,  in  the  inventions  of  human  genius,  and  in  the 
economy  of  the  minutest  insects,  as  well  as  in  the  earthquake, 
the  storm,  and  the  convulsions  of  nations;  for  he  considers 
the  smallest  atom,  and  the  hosts  of  heaven,  as  equally 
directed  by  Eternal  Wisdom,  and  equally  necessary  in  the 
universal  chain  of  creatures  and  events.  He  displays  a  be- 
coming modesty  in  speaking  of  the  ways  and  the  works  of 
God.  When  he  meets  with  any  dark  and  afflictive  dispensa- 
tion in  the  course  of  Providence,  he  does  not  fret  and  repine, 
but  is  calm  and  resigned,  conscious  that  he  perceives  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  chain  of  God's  dispensations,  and  is, 
therefore,  unable  to  form  a  just  comparison  of  the  connexion 
of  any  one  part  with  the  whole.  When  he  contemplates  the 
depraved  and  wretched  condition  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
world,  at  present,  and  for  thousands  of  years  past,  notwith- 
standing the  salvation  which  has  been  achieved  for  sinners  of 
mankind,  he  is  far  from  arraigning  the  Divine  goodness  and 
rectitude,  in  leaving  so  many  nations  "  to  walk  in  their  own 
\vay;"  for  he  knows  not  what  relation  this  dismal  scene  may 
bear,  what  influence  it  may  have,  or  what  important  impres- 
sions it  may  produce,  on  worlds  and  beings  with  which  we 
are  at  present  unacquainted. 

He  is  cautious  in  pronouncing  decisively  respecting  the 
dispensations  of  God,  in  regard  to  the  universe  at  large.  He 
does  not,  for  example,  assert,  with  the  utmost  confidence,  as 
some  have  done,  "  that  there  never  was,  and  never  will  be,  to 
all  the  ages  of  eternity,  such  a  bright  display  of  the  Divine 
glory  as  in  the  cross  of  Christ."  He  admires  and  adores  the 
condescension  and  the  love  of  God,  in  the  plan  of  salvation 


EXPANSION  OF  INTELLECTUAL  VIEWS.  379 

Avhich  the  Gospel  exhibits,  and  feels  an  interest  in  it  far  be- 
yond that  of  any  other  special  manifestation  of  Deity;  but  he 
dares  not  set  limits  to  the  Divme  atlribiites  and  operations. 
He  considers  himself  at  present,  with  regard  to  the  grand  sys- 
tem of  the  universe,  in  a  situation  simdar  to  that  of  a  small 
insect  on  one  of  the  stones  of  a  magnilicent  edifice,  wluch 
sees  only  a  few  hairbreadths  around  it,  and  is  altogether  inca- 
pable of  surveying  the  symmetry,  the  order,  and  beauty  of  the 
structure,  and  of  forming  an  adequate  conception  of  the  whole. 
He  considers  that  he  has  never  yet  surveyed  the  millionth 
part  of  Jehovah's  empire,  and,  therefore,  cannot  tell  what  the 
Eternal  Sovereign  has  been  pleased  to  exhibit  in  its  numerous 
provinces;  and,  least  of  all,  can  he  ever  presume  to  dive  into 
the  depths  of  interminable  ages,  and  boldly  declare  what  the 
Almighty  will,  or  will  not  do,  through  eternity  to  come.  He 
therefore  views  it  as  presumption,  while  he  has  no  dictate  of 
revelation  for  his  warrant,  to  pronounce  decisively,  either  on 
the  one  side  or  on  the  other,  of  such  a  deep  and  important 
question,  which  seems  above  the  reach  of  the  loftiest  seraph 
to  determine.*  In  short,  he  endeavours  to  take  a  view  of  all 
the  manifestations  of  Deity  within  his  reach,  from  every  source 
of  information  which  lies  before  him,  and  as  far  as  his  limited 
faculties  will  permit.  He  does  not  call  in  question  the  dis- 
coveries of  science,  because  they  bring  to  his  ears  most 
astonishing  reports  of  the  wisdom  and  omnipotence  of  Jeho- 
vah, and  of  the  boundless  extent  of  his  kingdom  ;  but  rejoices 
to  learn,  that  the  grandeur  of  his  dominion  is  actually  found 
to  correspond  witii  the  lofty  descriptions  of  Divine  majesty 
and  glory  recorded  in  the  volume  of  inspiration,  and  is  thereby 
inspued  with  nobler  hopes  of  the  glory  and  felicity  of  that 
heavenly  world  where  he  expects  to  spend  an  endless  existence. 
if,  then,  such  be  some  of  the  features  in  the  character  of 
the  enlightened  Christian;  if  liberality  and  candour,  and  accu- 
rate investigation,  mark  the  judgements  he  pronounces  on  the 
sentiments  and  the  actions  of  men,  and  on  the  works  and 
the  ways  of  God  ;  and  if  such  views  and  feelings  ought  to  be 
considered  as  more  congenial  to  the  noble  and  benevolent 
spirit  of  our  religion,  than  the  narrow  and  distorted  notions 
of  a  contracted  mind, — it  must  be  an  object  much  to  be  de- 
sired, that  the  mass  of  the  Christian  world  be  led  into  such 
trains  of  thought,  as  might  imbue  their  minds  with  a  larger 
proportion  of  this  spirit.  And,  if  diversified  and  occasional 
discussions  on  the  topics  to  which  we  have  adverted  would 

*  See  Appendix,  note  XII. 


380  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

have  a  tendency  to  produce  this  desirable  effect,  it  is  obvious, 
that  such  branches  of  knowledge  as  are  calculated  to  enlarge 
the  capacity  of  the  mind,  and  to  throw  a  light  over  the  revela- 
tions and  the  works  of  God,  should  no  longer  be  overlooked 
in  the  range  of  our  religious  contemplations. 

V. —  The   extensive   range  of  thought   which   the    diversified 
objects  in  nature  present^  would   have  a  tendency  to 

INSPIRE   us  WITH   A  SPIRIT  OF  PIETY  AND  PROFOUND  HUMI- 
LITY. 

It  is  owing,  in  many  instances,  to  want  of  attention  to  the 
impressive  displays  of  wisdom  and  omnipotence  in  the  mate- 
rial world,  that  our  pious  feelings  and  devotional  exercises  are 
so  cold  and  languid.  We  stalk  about  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  pass  from  one  day  to  another,  without  reflecting  on 
the  grand  and  complicated  machinery  around  us,  which  is  car- 
rying us  along  through  the  regions  of  space,  and  from  one 
portion  of  duration  to  another,  as  if  the  mighty  energies  of  the 
Eternal  Mind,  exerted  in  our  behalf,  were  unworthy  of  our  ac- 
knowledgement or  regard.  How  few,  for  example,  reflect, 
when  they  open  their  eyes  in  the  morning,  and  perceive  the 
first  beams  of  the  rising  sun,  that  since  they  lay  down  to  sleep, 
the  Divine  power  has  been  exerted  in  carrying  them  more  than 
four  thousand  miles  round  to  the  eastward,  in  order  that  they 
might  again  be  cheered  with  the  morning  light;  and  that, dur- 
ing the  same  period,  they,  along  with  the  earth  and  its  vast 
population,  have  been  carried  forward  476,000  miles  from  that 
portion  of  space  which  they  occupied  seven  hours  before  ?* 
Or,  if  they  have  no  idea  of  the  motion  of  the  earth,  and  attach 
no  belief  to  such  an  opinion,  how  is  it  they  do  not  reflect, 

*  When  it  is  here  said  that  we  are  carried  "  more  than  4000  miles  round 
to  the  eastward"  during  the  hours  of  sleep — the  author  refers  to  the  diurnal 
motion  of  the  earth  I'roin  west  to  east.  The  rate  of  this  motion  is  different 
to  the  inhabitants  of  different  latitudes.  At  the  equator  the  inhabitants 
are  carried  at  the  rate  of  1038  miles  an  hour,  and  if  seven  hours  be  allowed 
for  nightly  repose,  they  are  carried  round  7266  miles  during  sleep.  'I'hose 
who  live  in  the  52d  degree  of  latitude,  as  the  inhabitants  of  places  near 
London,  move  at  the  rate  of  637  miles  an  hour ;  and  consequently,  in  the 
course  of  seven  hours,  are  carried  round  4459  miles.  The  inhabitants  of 
Greenland,  in  lat.  ()9°,  during  the  same  time,  move  only  2570  miles  ;  and, 
were  there  any  inhabitants  at  the  88th  degree  of  latitude,  or  within  two 
degrees  of  the  polar  points,  their  motion,  during  seven  hours,  would  not 
exceed  252  miles.  When  it  is  said  we  are  carried  forward  during  the  same 
time  476,000  miles,  the  reference  is  to  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  sixty-eight  thousand  miles  every  hour,  and  conse- 
quently 476,000  miles  during  the  seven  hours  supposed  to  be  allotted  to 
sleep. 


PIETY  AND  HUMILITY.  381 

that,  after  night  has  thrown  its  shades  around  them,  the  sun, 
and  ten  thousand  other  vast  globes,  must  move  several  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  miles,  before  their  eyes  can  again  behold 
the  light  of  day  ?  Either  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  cases 
must  be  the  fact;  and,  in  either  case,  there  is  presented  to  our 
view,  a  display  of  the  omnipotence,  and  the  superintendence 
of  Him  in  whom  we  live  and  move,  which  demands  our  grati- 
tude, our  admiration,  and  praise.  And  can  it  ever  be  supposed, 
that  such  reflections,  combined  with  all  the  other  excitements 
to  reverence  and  gratitude,  will  not  tend  to  elevate  our  con- 
templations, and  to  raise  our  pious  feelings  to  a  higher  pitch 
of  devotion  ?  Whether  the  Psalmist  entertained  any  views  of 
this  kind,  \vhen  he  composed  the  ninety-s-econd  Psalm,  we 
cannot  certainly  determine  ;  but  I  presume,  the  pious  and  con- 
templative mind,  when  awakening  from  the  slumbers  of  night, 
under  such  impressions,  might  sing  the  first  part  of  that  song 
of  praise  with  peculiar  emphasis  and  delight— '^  It  is  a  good 
thing  to  give  thanks  to  Jehovah,  and  to  sing  praise  to  thy 
name,  O  thou  Most  High !  to  show  forth  thy  loving-kindness 
in  -the  morning.  For  thou,  Lord,  hast  made  me  glad  through 
thy  work,"  (or  thy  powerful  energy,) — "  I  will  triumph  in  the 
works  of  thy  hands.  O  Lord  !  hovy  great  are  thy  w^orks  ! 
and  thy  thoughts"  (or  contrivances)  "  are  very  deep  !  A  brut- 
ish man  knoweth  not,  neither  doth  a  fool  understand  this." 

An  extensive  acquaintance  with  nature  and  science,  com- 
bined with  Christian  principle,  would  also  induce  profound 
humUity.  The  man  who  has  made  excursions  through  the 
most  diversified  regions  of  thought,  is  deeply  sensible  of  the 
little  progress  he  has  attained,  and  of  the  vast  and  unbounded 
field  of  divine  science  which  still  remains  to  be  explored. 
When  he  considers  the  immense  variety  of  sublime  subjects 
which  the  volume  of  inspiration  exhibits,  and  of  which  he  has 
obtained  but  a  very  faint  and  imperfect  glimpse — the  compre- 
hensive extent,  and  the  intricate  windings  of  the  operations  of 
Providence,  and  the  infinite  number  of  beings  over  which  it 
extends — the  amplitude  and  magnificence  of  that  glorious  uni- 
verse over  which  Jehovah  presides,  and  how  small  a  portion 
of  it  lies  open  to  his  minute  inspection — he  is  humbled  in  the 
dust  at  the  view  of  his  own  insignificance;  he  sees  himself 
to  be  a  very  babe  in  knowledge;  and, as  it  were,  just  emerging 
from  the  gloom  of  ignorance  into  the  first  davvnings  of  light 
and  intelligence.  He  feels  the  full  force  and  spirit  of  the  poet's 
sentiment — 

"  Much  learning  shows  how  Utile  mortals  know." 


382  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

When  he  considers  the  comprehensive  extent  of  the  divine 
law,  and  its  numerous  bearings  on  every  part  of  his  conduct, 
and  on  all  the  diversified  relations  in  which  he  stands  to  his 
God,  and  to  his  fellow-men  ;  and  when  he  reflects  on  his  mul- 
tiplied deviations  from  that  eternal  rule  of  rectitude,  he  is 
ashamed  and  confounded  in  the  presence  of  the  holy  one  of 
Israel ;  and  on  a  review  of  his  former  pride  and  self-conceit, 
is  constrained  to  adopt  the  language  of  Agur  and  of  A.'^aph — 
"  Surely  1  am  more  brutish  than  any  man,  and  have  not  the 
understanding  of  a  man."  "So  foolish  was  1,  and  ignorani^  J 
was  as  a  beast  before  thee."  He  views  the  meanest  and  the 
most  ignorant  of  his  species,  as  but  a  very  few  degrees  below 
him  in  the  scale  of  intelligence,  and  sees  no  reason  why  he 
should  glory  over  his  fellows. 

This  sentiment  might  be  illustrated  from  the  example  of 
some  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  whose  minds  science  and 
religion  were  combined.  The  Honourable  Mr.  Boyle  was 
the  most  unwearied  and  successful  explorer  of  the  works  of 
God,  in  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  all  his  philosophical 
pursuits  were  consecrated  to  the  service  of  religion.  Among 
other  excellent  traits  in  his  character,  humility  was  the  Tiio-st 
conspicuous.  "  He  had  about  him,"  says  Bishop  Burnet,  '■'•all 
that  unaflected  neglect  of  pomp  in  clothes,  lodging,  furniture, 
and  equipage,  which  agreed  with  his  grave  and  serious  course 
of  life,"  and  was  courteous  and  condescending  to  the  meanest 
of  his  fellow-men.  "  He  had,"  says  the  same  author,  "  the 
profoundest  veneration  for  the  great  God  of  heaven  and  earth, 
that  ever  I  observed  in  any  person.  The  very  name  of  God 
was  never  mentioned  by  him  without  a  pause,  and  a  visible 
stop  in  his  discourse;  and  the  tenor  of  his  philosophical  and 
theological  writings  is  in  complete  unison  with  these  traits  of 
character."  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  too,  whose  genius  seemed  to 
know  no  limits  but  those  of  the  visible  imiverse,  was  distin- 
guislied  by  his  modesty^  huviilUy^  and  meekness  of  temper.  He 
liad  such  an  humhle  opinion  of  himself,  that  he  had  no  relish 
of  the  applause  which  was  so  deservedly  paid  him.  He  would 
have  let  others  run  away  with  the  glory  of  his  inventions,  if 
his  friends  and  countrymen  had  not  been  more  jealous  of  his 
honour  than  he  was  himself.  He  said,  a  little  before  his  death, 
''  I  do  not  know  what  1  may  appear  to  the  world,  but  to  my- 
self I  seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a  pebble 
or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst  the  great  ocean  of 
truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me." 

The  same  sentiment  might  have  been  illustrated  from  the 


PIETY  AND  HUMILITY.  383 

lives  of  Bacon,  Locke,  Dr.  Boerhaave,  Hervey,  Nieuwentyt, 
Ray,  Derham,  the  Abbe  Pliiche,  Bonnet,  and  other  eminent 
characters,  who  devoted  then*  stores  of  knowledge  to  the  illus- 
tration of  the  Christian  system.  For  an  extensive  knowledge 
of  the  operations  of  God  has  a  natural  tendency  to  produce 
humility  and  veneration  ;  and  wherever  it  is  combined  with 
pride  and  arrogance,  either  among  philosophers  or  divines,  it 
indicates  a  lamentable  deficiency,  if  not  a  complete  destitution, 
of  Christian  principle,  and  of  all  those  tempers  which  form 
the  bond  of  union  among  holy  intelligences.  After  the  atten- 
tion of  Job  had  been  directed  to  the  works  of  God,  and  when 
he  had  contemplated  the  inexplicable  phenomena  of  the  Divine 
agency  in  the  material  world,  he  was  ashamed  and  confounded 
at  his  former  presumption  ;  and,  in  deep  humility,  exclaimed, 
'•'•  I  have  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear ;  but  now 
mine  eye  seeth  thee  :  wherefore  I  abhor  myself,  and  repent 
in  dust  and  ashes."  In  accordance  with  what  has  been  now 
stated,  we  find,  that  the  most  exalted  intelligences,  who,  of 
course,  possess  the  most  extensive  views  of  the  w^orks  and 
providential  arrangements  of  God,  are  represented  as  also  the 
most  humble  in  their  deportment,  and  as  displaying  the  most 
profound  reverence  in  their  incessant  adorations.  They  "/a/Z 
dozen  before  Him  who  sits  upon  the  throne  ;  and  cast  their 
croions  hefore  the  throne^  saying,  Thou  art  worthy,  O  Lord,  to 
receive  glory,  and  honour,  and  power;  for  thou  hast  created 
all  things,  and  for  thy  pleasure  they  are  and  were  created." 
Their  moral  conduct  evinces  the  same  lowly  temper  of  mind. 
They  wait  around  the  throne,  in  the  attitude  of  motion,  with 
wings  outspread,  ready  to  fly,  on  the  first  signal  of  their 
Sovereign's  will ;  they  "  do  his  commandments,  hearkening 
to  the  voice  of  his  word,"  and  do  not  disdain  to  perform  im- 
portant services,  in  our  wretched  world,  to  the  meanest  human 
being  who  is  numbered  among  ''  the  heirs  of  salvation."  In 
like  manner,  were  we  endued  with  the  grasp  of  intellect,  the 
capacious  minds,  the  extensive  knowledge,  and  the  moral 
powers  which  they  possess,  we  would  also  display  the  same 
humble  and  reverential  spirit,  and  feel  ashamed  of  those  emo- 
tions of  vanity  and  pride,  which  dispose  so  many  of  the  human 
family  to  look  down  with  contempt  on  their  fellow-mortals. 

If  the  leading  train  of  sentiment  which  pervades  this  volume 
be  admitted,  the  following  general  conclusions  may  be  de- 
duced : — That,  in  conducting  the  religious  instruction  of  the 
young,  the  works  of  God  in  the  material  world,  and  the  most 
striking  discoveries  which  have  been  made  as  to  their  magni- 


384  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

tude,  variety,  and  mechanism,  should  be  frequently  exhibited 
to  their  view,  m  minute  detail ;  as  illustrations  of  the  attri- 
butes of  the  Deity,  and  of  those  descriptions  of  his  nature  and 
operations  contained  in  the  volume  of  inspiration ; — that  the 
books  put  into  their  hands  should  contain,  among  other  sub- 
jects, popular  and  striking  descriptions  of  the  facts  and  appear- 
ances of  nature  ; — that  seminaries  should  be  established  for 
the  occasional  instruction  of  young  persons,  from  the  age  of 
twenty  or  thirty,  or  upwards,  in  all  those  popular  branches  of 
natural  and  moral  science  which  have  a  tendency  to  enlarge 
the  capacity  of  their  minds,  and  to  expand  their  conceptions 
of  the  incessant  agency  of  God  ; — and  that  the  ministers  of 
religion,  in  their  public  instructions,  should  frequently  blend 
their  discussions  of  divine  topics  with  illustrations  derived 
from  the  scenes  of  creation  and  providence. 


APPENDIX 


CONTAINING 


NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Note  I,  p.  47. — Illustrations  of  the  rate  of  motion  in  the  heavenly 
bodies,  on  the  suppositt&n  that  the  earth  is  at  rest. 

The  distance  of  the  sun  is  about  95  millions  of  miles ;  conse- 
quently, the  diameter  of  the  circle  he  would  describe  around  the 
earth  would  be  190  millions,  and  its  circumference  597,142,857, 
which  forms  the  extent  of  the  circuit  through  which  he  would 
move  in  24  hours,  if  the  earth  were  at  rest.  This  number, 
divided  by  24,  gives  24,880,952,  the  number  of  miles  he  would 
move  in  an  hour;  and  this  last  number,  divided  by  60,  gives 
414,682,  the  number  of  miles  he  would  move  in  a  minute.  The 
nearest  star  is  reckoned  to  be  at  least  20,000,000,000,000,  or 
twenty  billions  of  miles  distant  from  the  earth ;  consequently, 
its  daily  circuit  round  our  globe  would  measure  more  than 
125,000,000,000,000  miles.  This  sum,  divided  by  86,400,  the 
number  of  seconds  in  a  day,  would  give  1,454,861,111,  or  some- 
what more  than  one  thousand  four  hundred  millions  of  miles,  for 
its  rate  of  motion  in  a  second  of  time — a  motion  which,  were  it 
actually  existing,  would,  in  all  probability  shatter  the  universe 
10  atoms. 

The  unlearned  reader  may,  perhaps,  acquire  a  more  distinct 
idea  of  this  explanation  from  the  following  figure. 

Let  the  small  circle  A,  in  the  centre,  represent  the  earth,  and 
the  circle  B  C  D  E  the  orbit  of  the  sun,  on  the  supposition  that 
he  moves  round  the  earth  every  24  hours.  The  line  A  B  will 
represent  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth,  or  95  millions 
of  miles;  the  hne  'B  D  the  diameter  of  the  orbit  he  would  de- 
scribe; and  the  circle  B  C  D  E  the  circumference  along  which 
he  would  move  every  day,  or  597  millions  of  miles,  which  is 
somewhat  more  than  three  times  the  diameter.  If  the  hne  A  P 
represent  the  distance  of  the  nearest  star,  the  circle  F  G  H  I  will 
represent  the  circuit  through  which  it  would  move  every  24 
hours,  if  the  earth  Avere  at  rest.  It  is  obvious  from  the  figure, 
that  since  the  stars  are  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  earth  than 
the  sun,  the  circle  they  would  describe  around  the  earth  would 
be  larger  in  proportion,  and,  consequently,  their  velocities  would 
be  proportionally  more  rapid ;  since  they  would  move  through 
their  larger  circles  in  the  same  time  in  which  the  sun  moved 
through  his  narrow  sphere.  But,  the  supposition  that  the  earth 
is  the  centre  of  all  the  celestial  motions,  and  that  the  different  stars 
are  daily  moving   around   it  with  different  velocities,   and   the 

33 


386 


CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 


slowest  of  these  motions  so  inconceivably  rapid,  is  so  wild  and 
extravagant,  that  it  appears  altogether  inconsistent  with  the  har- 
mony of  the  universe,  with  the  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  the 
Deity,  and  with  all  the  other  arrangements  he  has  made  in  the 
system  of  nature. 

Fig.  32. 


Note  IT.  pp.  72,  241, — Experiniental  illmtratiom  of  the  presmre 
and  compressibility  of  the  atmosphere.— The  diving  bell,  ^-c. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  most  strikingly  illustrated 
by  means  of  the  air-pump.  But  as  few  persons,  comparatively, 
possess  this  instrument,  the  following  experiments,  which  any 
person  may  perform  at  pleasure,  are  sufficiently  convincing  on 
this  point.  Take  a  common  wine  glass,  and  fill  it  with  water; 
apply  a  piece  of  paper  over  the  mouth  of  the  glass  ;  press  the 
paper  to  the  rim  of  the  glass  with  the  palm  of  the  hand ;  turn 
the  <^lass  upside  down  ;  withdraw  the  hand  from  the  paper ;  and 
the  water  will  be  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 
That  it  is  the  atmospherical  pressure,  and  not  the  paper,  which 
supports  the  water,  is  evident;  for  the  paper,  instead  ol  being 
pressed  down  by  the  Aveight  of  the  water,  is  pressed  upward  by 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and  appears  concave,  or  hollow 
in  the  middle.     If  the  flame  of  a  candle  be  applied  to  the  paper. 


APPENDIX. 


387 


it  may  l)e  held  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  close  to  the  paper, 
without  setting  fire  to  it.  The  same  fact  is  proved  by  the  follow- 
ing experiment.— Take  a  glass  tube,  of  any  length,  and  of  a  nar- 
row bore;  put  one  end  of  it  in  a  basin  of  water;  apply  the 
mouth  to  the  other  end,  and  draw  out  the  air  by  suction  ;  the 
^vater  will  immediately  rise  towards  the  top  of  the  tube;  and  if 
the  linger  or  thumb  be  applied  to  the  top  of  the  tube,  to  prevent 
the  admission  of  air,  and  the  tube  removed  from  the  basin  of  wa- 
ter, the  water  in  the  tube  will  be  supported  by  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  on  the  lower  end.  Again  :— Take  a  wine  glass,  and 
burn  a  small  bit  of  paper  in  it ;  and,  while  the  paper  is  burning, 
press  the  palm  of  the  hand  upon  the  mouth  of  the  glass,  and  it 
will  adhere  to  the  hand  with  considerable  force.  In  this  case, 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  will  be  sefisibly  Mi ;  for  it  will 
sometimes  require  a  considerable  force  to  detach  the  glass  from 
the  hand. 

The  following  experiment  will  also  illustrate  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere.  Take  a  tin  vessel  about  six  or  seven  inches  long, 
and  three  in  diameter,  with  its  mouth  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
wide,  as  E  F  in  fig.  *  Pierce  a  number  of  small  holes  in  its  bot- 
tom, about  the  diameter  of  a  common  sewing  needle.  Plunge 
the  vessel  in  water,  and  when  full,  cork  it  up,  so  that  no  air  can 
enter  at  top.  While  it  remains  corked  no  water  will  run  out, 
being  prevented  by  the  atmospheric  pressure,  but  the  moment  it 
is  uncorked,  the  water  will  issue  from  the  small  holes  in  the  bot- 
tom by  the  pressure  of  air  from  above.  The  same  experiment 
may  be  made  by  taking  a  tube,  G  H,  fig.,t  seven  or  eight  inches 
long,  and  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  diameter,  having  a  small 
hole  on  each  side,  I  K.  When  filled  with  water  and  corked,  no 
water  will  run  out,  but  when  the  cork  is  removed  the  water 
will  run  out  at  I  and  K,  illustrating  the  lateral  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  explains  a  variety  of  common 
phenomena.  When  we  take  a  draught  of  water  out  of  a  basin 
or  a  running  stream,  we  immerse  our  mouths  in  the  water,  and 
make  a  vacuum  by  drawing  in  the  air;  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  upon  the  external  surface  of  the  water  then  forces  it 
into  the  mouth.  The  same  cause  explains  the  process  of  a  child 
sucking  its  mother's  breasts — the  action  of  a  boy's  sucker,  in  lift- 
ing large  stones — the  rise  of  water  in  pumps — the  effects  produced 
by  cements — the  firm  adhesion  of  snails  and  periwinkles  to  rocks 
and  stones — the  scarcity  of  water  in  the  lime  of  hard  frosts — and 
the  fact,  that  a  cask  will  not  run  by  the  cock,  unless  a  hole  be 
opened  in  some  other  part  of  the  cask. 

The  following  experiment  illustrates  the  compressibility  of  air, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  principle  on  which  the  diving  belt  is  con- 
structed.    Let  A  B,  fig.,  i  represent  a  large  tumbler,  nearly  filled 

*  This  figure  referred  to  is  in  "  Mental  Illumination,"  p.  367,  fig.  2. 
t"  Mental  Illumination,"  p.  367,  fig.  3. 
t  "  Mental  Illumination,"  p.  366,  fig.  1. 


S88  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

with  water.  Place  a  piece  of  cork  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  over  the  cork  an  ale-glass  C  D,  with  its  mouth  downwards; 
then  push  the  glass  perpendicularly  down  towards  the  bottom  of 
the  tumbler,  and  the  cork  will  appear  swimming  a  little  above  the 
bottom — indicating  that  there  is  no  water  above  it  in  the  ale-glass, 
but  only  air,  which  prevents  the  entrance  of  the  water.  If  the 
water  in  the  tumbler  be  supposed  to  represent  the  water  of  a  river 
or  of  the  sea,  the  ale-glass  will  represent  the  diving  bell  in  which 
a  person  may  sit  with  safety  in  the  depths  of  the  sea  without  be- 
ing immersed  in  the  water,  provided  fresh  air  be  supplied.  A 
small  quantity  of  water  will  be  found  to  have  entered  the  ale- 
glass,  and  the  deeper  it  is  plunged  in  any  vessel  the  higher  will 
the  water  rise  within  ;  which  proves  the  compressibility  of  the  air 
within  the  glass. 

The  diving  bell  has  been  much  used  of  late  in  recovering 
valuable  articles  from  the  wreck  of  ships  that  had  sunk  in  deep 
•water,  and  in  blowing  up  such  wrecks  as  are  sunk  near  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  and  form  impediments  to  navigation — by  means 
of  powder  ignited  by  the  electric  spark.  Major  General  Pasley 
has  been  employed  for  a  considerable  time  past  in  blowing  up  the 
wreck  of  the  Koyal  George  man-of-war,  which  foundered  at  ISpit- 
head,  near  Portsmouth,  in  1783.  Many  of  the  valuable  articles 
belonging  to  this  largest  vessel  of  the  British  navy  have  thus 
been  recovered.  Five  or  six  divers  have  been  constantly  em- 
ployed, and  no  serious  accidents  have  occurred.  On  the  20th 
June,  1842,  3065  cubic  feet,  or  61  loads  of  timber  had  been 
brought  up  from  the  wreck,  besides  219  pigs  of  iron  ballast, 
weighing  32  tons,  17  cwt.  One  of  the  best  divers  sent  up  nine- 
teen pigs,  or  nearly  three  tons,  in  one  day.  Most  of  the  iron  and 
brass  cannons  have  thus  been  got  up;  and  during  the  first  six  or 
seven  months  of  1842,  more  than  four  thousand  pounds  of  pow- 
der have  been  expended  in  these  operations.  Dr.  Payerne  has 
lately  invented  a  method  for  producing  pure  air,  in  such  experi- 
ments, fit  for  the  respiration  of  man,  and  for  supporting  flame 
without  communication  with  the  external  air,  which  he  has  fre- 
quently successfully  exhibited  in  London,  in  the  diving  bell  of 
the  Polytechnic  Institution,  and  on  the  2d  September,  1842,  he 
put  his  invention  to  the  test  by  descending  at  Spithead,  along  with 
Major  Pasley,  to  the  depth  of  seventy-five  feet,  when  the  water 
stood  only  six  inches  high  at  the  bottom  of  the  bell.  The  air  they 
breathed  in  the  bell  was  perfectly  good  ;  and  the  whole  apparatus 
for  purifying  it  was  contained  in  a  case  not  larger  than  a  common 
portable  writing-desk,  which  requires  only  the  turning  of  a  small 
winch  occasionally,  and  no  science  on  the  part  of  the  person  in 
charge.  When  the  diving  bell  is  once  filled  with  compressed  air, 
either  by  letting  it  escape  from  vessels  previously  filled  wiih  it,  or 
by  four  men  pumping  for  less  than  half  an  hour,  no  more  pump- 
ing is  necessary,  as  the  air  in  the  bell  never  requires  to  be  changed. 
In  the  common  mode  of  working  the  diving  bell,  on  the  contraiy, 
a  powerful  pump,  manned  by  six  or  eight  men,  would  be  re- 
quired, as  at  Spithead,  which  must  be  kept  constantly  at  work 


APPENDIX. 


389 


the  whole  time  that  the  men  are  down  in  the  diving  bell  ;  and 
this  incessant  pumping  is  so  laborious,  that  from  twelve  to  six- 
teen men,  working  in  two  reliefs,  are  necessary  for  the  purpose 
of  expelling  the  vvaier.  Such  inventions  as  that  now  stated,  may- 
be applied  to  many  practical  and  beneficial  purposes,  and  perhaps 
to  purposes  more  diversified  and  extensive  than  we  can,  in  the 
mean  time,  anticipate. 

Note  III. —  O/i  the  ideas  of  magnitude,  motion,  and  duration,  as 
expressed  hy  numbers.     See  pp.  93, 99,  &c. 

In  the  pages  referred  to,  and  other  parts  of  this  volume,  some 
very  large  numbers  are  expressed  in  ^figures.  Some  readers  have 
insinuated,  that  it  would  have  been  better  to  have  expressed  such 
numbers  in  ivords.  The  author,  however,  is  of  a  different  opinion; 
because,  to  some  readers,  not  much  acquainted  with  numeration, 
a  thousand  trillions  would  convey  nearly  the  same  idea  as  a  thou- 
sand nonillions,  though  the  one  number  contains  58  places  of 
figures,  and  the  other  only  22.  It  is  chiefly  the  number  of 
figures,  or  ciphers,  in  such  large  sums,  that  leads  us  to  form  a 
comparative  estimate  of  their  value  or  extent.  Our  ideas  of  mag- 
nitude and  extension,  conveyed  by  such  numbers,  must,  of  course, 
be  very  vague  and  undefined.  If  we  have  been  accustomed  to 
travelling  we  have  a  tolerably  clear  conception  of  a  hundred,  and 
even  of  a  thousand  miles  ;  but  we  have  no  clear  nor  adequate  con- 
ception of  a  body,  or  of  a  portion  of  space,  ten  hundred  thousands, 
ten  hundred  millions,  or  ten  hundred  billions  of  miles  in  extent. 
The  mind,  however,  may  be  assisted  in  its  conceptions,  and  in  its 
comparative  estimate  of  different  numbers,  by  fixing  on  some  par- 
ticular number  as  a  standard.  If,  according  to  the  common 
reckoning,  we  suppose,  that  5828  years  have  elapsed  since  the 
commencement  of  time,  the  number  of  seconds,  or  moments,  in 
this  period,  will  amount  to  183,913,782,212,  or  one  hundred  and 
eighty-three  thousand,  nine  hundred  and  thirteen  millions,  seven 
hundred  and  eighty-two  thousand,  two  hundred  and  twelve, 
which  is  less  than  a  fifth  part  of  a  billion.  If  the  distance  of  the 
nearest  stars  from  the  earth  be  at  least  20  billions  of  miles,  then 
this  distance  may  be  otherwise  expressed,  by  saying,  that  the 
number  of  miles  Avhich  intervene  between  us  and  these  bodies  is 
more  than  a  hundred  times  greater  than  the  number  of  moments 
which  have  elapsed  since  the  creation;  and,  by  a  similar  cornpa- 
rison,  it  will  be  found,  that  the  number  of  cubical  miles  within 
the  limits  of  the  planetary  system,  is  132,000,000,000,000,000,  or 
one  hundred  and  thirty -two  thousand  billions  of  times  greater  than 
the  number  of  moments  in  5828  years. 

It  has  been  computed,  that  the  earth,  supposing  it  a  solid  globe, 
contains  about  30,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,  or 
thirty  quintillions  of  grains  of  sand,  supposing  a  hundred  grains 
of  sand  to  be  equal  in  length  to  an  inch,  and,  consequently,  a 
million  of  such  grains  for  every  cubical  inch.  If  we  use  this 
number  as  a  standard  for  estimating  the  number  of  cubical  miles 

33* 


390  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

contained  within  tlie  space  which  intervenes  between  us  -and  the 
nearest  stars,  we  shall  find  that  the  number  of  cubical  miles  com- 
prehended Avithin  this  space  is  more  than  ten  thousand  millions 
of  times  greater  than  the  number  of  the  grains  of  sand  contained 
in  the  globe  on  which  Ave  dwell. 

Though  the  human  mind  can  form  no  definite  conceptions  of 
such  numbers  and  magnitudes,  yet  it  may  be  useful  occasionally 
to  ruminate  on  such  subjects;  as  it  is  the  only,  or  at  least  the 
principal  mode  by  which  limited  minds  like  ours  can  approximate 
to  an  idea  of  the  infinity  of  the  Creator.  And  if  an  image  of  infi- 
nity is  presented  to  the  mind  in  the  spaces  comprehended  within 
the  hmits  of  our  system,  how  overpowering  the  conception  of 
innumerable  systems,  to  which  ours  bears  no  more  proportion 
than  a  drop  of  water  to  the  mighty  ocean !  How  ineffably  glo- 
rious must  be  the  attributes  of  that  incomprehensible  Being,  who 
pervades  every  part  of  this  vast  universe,  and  who  continually 
superintends  all  its  minute  and  diversified  movements ! 

Note  IV^,  p.  212. —  On  the  means  hij  which  it  may  probably  be 
ascertained  whether  the  moon  be  a  habitable  world. 

About  the  year  1818,  the  author  published,  in  the  Monthly 
Magazine,  a  few  observations  on  the  surface  of  the  moon,  in 
which  a  few  remarks  were  offered  on  this  subject.  The  following 
is  an  extract  from  that  communication : 

'•  If  we  be  ever  to  obtain  an  ocular  demonstration  of  the  habi- 
tability  of  any  of  the  celestial  orbs,  the  moon  is  the  only  one 
where  we  can  expect  to  trace,  by  our  telescopes,  indications  of 
the  agency  of  sentient  or  inteUigent  beings  ;  and  I  am  pretty 
much  convinced,  that  a  long-continued  series  of  observations  on 
this  planet,  by  a  number  of  individuals  in  different  places,  might 
completely  set  at  rest  the  question,  '^Whether  the  moon  be  a 
habitable  world.'  Were  a  vast  number  of  persons,  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  to  devote  themselves  to  a  particular  survey  of 
the  moon — Avere  different  portions  of  her  surface  allotted  to  differ- 
ent individuals,  as  the  object  of  their  particular  research — were 
every  mountain,  hill,  cavern,  cliff,  and  plain,  accurately  inspected 
— and  every  change  and  modification  in  the  particular  spots  care- 
fully marked  and  "represented  in  a  series  of  delineations,  it  might 
lead  to  some  certain  conclusions,  both  as  to  her  physical  consti- 
tution, and  her  ultimate  destination.  It  can  be  demonstrated,  that 
a  telescope  Avhich  magnifies  100  times,  will  show  a  spot  on  the 
moon's  surface,  whose  diameter  is  1223  yards ;  and  one  Avhich 
magnifies  a  thousand  times,  will,  of  course,  enable  us  to  perceive 
a  portion  of  her  surface,  Avhose  size  is  only  122  yards  ;  and,  con- 
sequently, an  object,  Avhether  natural  or  artificial,  of  no  greater 
extent  than  one  of  our  large  edifices,  (such  as  St.  Paul's  cathedral, 
London,)  may,  by  such  an  instrument,  be  easily  distinguished. 
Now,  if  cA-ery  minute  point  on  the  lunar  surface  Avere  accurately 
marked  by  numerous  observers,  it  might  be  ascertained  Avhether 
any  changes  are  taking  place,  either  from  physical  causes,  or 


APPENDIX.  391 

from  the  operations  of  intelligent  agents.  If  a  large  forest  were 
cutting  down — if  a  city  were  building  in  an  open  plain,  or  extend- 
ing its  former  boundaries — if  a  barren  waste  were  changing  into 
a  scene  of  vegetation — or,  if  an  immense  concourse  of  animated 
beings  were  occasionally  assembled  on  a  particular  spot,  or  shift- 
ing from  one  place  to  another — such  changes  would  be  indicated 
by  certain  modifications  of  shade,  colour,  or  motion  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, would  furnish  a  direct  proof  of  the  agency  of  intelligent 
beings  analogous  to  man,  and  of  the  moon  being  a  habitable 
globe.  For  although  we  may  never  be  able  to  distinguish  the 
inhabitants  of  the  moon  (if  any  exist)  yet  if  we  can  trace  those 
effects  which  can  flow  only  from  the  operations  of  intelligent 
agents,  it  would  form  a  complete  demonstration  of  their  existence, 
on  the  same  ground  on  which  a  navigator  concludes  an  unknown 
island  to  be  inhabited,  when  he  perceives  human  habitations,  and 
cultivated  fields. 

''  That  changes  occasionally  happen  on  the  lunar  hemisphere, 
next  the  earth,  appears  from  the  observations  of  Herschel  and 
Schroeter,  particularly  from  those  of  the  latter.  In  the  transac- 
tions of  the  Society  of  Natural  Philosophy,  at  Berlin,  Schroeter 
relates,  that,  on  the  30th  December,  1791,  at  five  o'clock,  P.  M., 
with  a  seven  feet  reflector,  magnifying  161  times,  he  perceived 
the  commencement  of  a  small  crater  on  the  south-west  declivity 
of  the  volcanic  mountain  in  the  Mare  Crisium,  having  a  shadow 
of  at  least  2"'5.  On  the  11th  of  January,  at  twenty  minutes  past 
five,  on  looking  at  this  place  again,  he  could  see  neither  the  new 
crater,  nor  its  shadow.  Again,  on  the  4th  January,  1772,  he  per- 
ceived, in  the  eastern  crater  of  Helicon,  a  central  mountain,  of  a 
clear  gray  color,  3'  in  diameter,  in  which,  during  many  years' 
observations,  he  had  perceived  no  trace.  'This  appearance,'  he 
adds,  '  is  remarkable,  as  probably,  from  the  time  of  Hevelius,  the 
western  part  of  Helicon  has  been  forming  into  its  present  shape, 
and  nature  seems,  in  that  district,  to  be  particularly  active.'  In 
making  such  minute  observations  as  those  to  which  I  allude,  it 
would  be  proper,  along  with  an  inspection  of  the  moon's  lumi- 
nous disk,  to  mark  the  appearances  of  diff'erent  portions  of  her 
dark  hemisphere,  when  it  is  partially  enlightened  by  the  reflected 
light  from  the  earth,  soon  after  the  appearance  of  new  moon. 
These  researches  would  require  a  long- continued  series  of  the 
most  minute  observation,  by  numerous  observers  in  different 
regions  of  the  globe,  which  could  be  effected  only  by  exciting, 
among  the  bulk  of  mankind,  a  general  attention  so  such  Investiga- 
tions. But  were  this  object  accomphshed,  and  were  numerous 
observations  made  from  the  tops  of  mountains,  and  in  the  serene 
sky  of  southern  climes,  where  the  powers  of  the  telescope  are  not 
counteracted  by  dense  vapours,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  direct 
proofs  would  be  obtained,  that  the  moon  is  a  habitable  world  ;— 
or,  at  least,  that  the  question  in  relation  to  this  point  would  be 
completely  set  at  rest." 


39S  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 


Note  V. — Remarks  on  the  pretended  discovery  of  a  lunar  fortifica- 
tion. 

The  British  public,  not  long  ago,  was  amused  by  the  announce- 
ment of  a  discovery  said  to  have  been  made  by  Professor  Frauen- 
hofer  of  Munich.  This  gentleman  was  said  to  have  discovered  a 
fcrtif.calion  in  the  moon,  and  to  have  distinguished  several  lines 
of  roads,  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  lunar  inhabitants.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say,  that  such  announcements  are  obviously 
premature.  To  perceive  distinctly  the  shape  of  an  object  in  the 
moon,  which  resembles  a  fortification,  it  is  requisite,  that  that  object 
be  of  a  much  larger  size  than  our  terrestrial  ramparts.  Besides, 
although  an  object  resembling  one  of  our  fortifications  were  per- 
ceived on  the  surface  of  the  moon,  there  would  be  no  reason  to  con- 
clude, that  it  served  the  same  purpose  as  fortifications  do  among  us. 
We  are  so  much  accustomed  to  war  in  our  terrestrial  system,  and 
reile;-t  so  little  on  its  diabolical  nature,  that  we  are  apt  to  imagine 
that  it  must  form  a  necessary  employment  even  in  other  worlds. 
To  be  assured  that  a  fortification  existed  in  the  moon  for  the  same 
purposes  as  with  us,  would  indeed  be  dismal  tidings  from  another 
world  ;  for  it  would  be  a  necessary  conclusion,  from  such  intelli- 
gence, that  the  inhabitants  of  that  globe  are  actuated  by  the  same 
principles  of  depravity,  ambition,  and  revenge,  which  have  in- 
fected the  moral  atmosphere  of  our  sublunary  world.  With  regard 
to  the  pretended  discovery  of  the  lunar  roads,  it  may  not  be  -im- 
proper to  remark,  that  such  roads  behooved  to  be  at  least  400  feet 
ijroad,  or  ten  times  the  breadth  of  ours,  in  order  to  be  perceived 
as  faint  lines  through  a  telescope  which  magnifies  a  thousand 
times;  which  is  a  higher  power,  I  presume,  than  Frauenhofer 
can  apply  with  distinctness  to  any  of  his  telescopes.  It  is  not  at 
all  likely  that  the  lunar  inhabitants  are  of  such  a  gigantic  size,  or 
employ  carriages  of  such  an  enormous  bulk,  as  to  require  roads 
of  such  dimensions,  since  the  whole  surface  of  the  moon  is  only 
the  thirtrenth  part  of  the  area  of  our  globe. 

Schroeter  conjectures  the  existence  of  a  great  city  to  the  north 
of  Mavrius,  (a  spot  in  the  moon,)  and  of  an  extensive  canal  to- 
wards Hyo'cna,  (another  spot,)  and  he  represents  part  of  tlie  spot 
nrimed3/orc  hnhrivni,  \o  be  as  fertile  as  the  Campania,  ^ee  Edin. 
Phil.  Jour.  No.  21,  for  July,  1824.  Similar  remarks  to  those  now 
stated  will  apply  to  these  conjectures  of  Schroeter.  We  are  too 
apt  to  im.ngine,  that  the  objects  we  perceive  in  the  moon  must 
bear  a  certain  resemblance  to  those  we  are  acquainted  with  on 
the  earth;  whereas  there  is  every  reason  to  believe,  from  the  va- 
riety we  perceive  in  nature,  that  not  one  world  resembles  another, 
except  in  some  of  its  more  prominent  and  general  arrangements. 
The  moon  bears  a  general  resemblance  to  the  earth,  in  its  being 
diversified  with  mountains  and  valleys;  but  the  positions  and  ar- 
rangements of  these  objects  in  the  moon,  and  the  scenery  they 
exhibit,  are  materially  different  from  what  appears  on  the  surface 
of  the  terraqueous  globe. 


APPENDIX.  393 


Note  VI.  p.  227. —  On  a  Plurality  of  Worlds. 

The  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  is  now  admitted  as  highly 
probable,  both  by  philosophers  and  by  enlightened  divines.  But 
il  has  been  admitted  by  many  persons  on  grounds  that  are  too 
general  and  vague,  and  consequently,  a  full  conviction  of  its  truth 
is  seldom  produced  in  the  mind.  In  different  parts  of  the  preced- 
ing volume  I  have  all  along  taken  it  for  granted,  because  I  consi- 
der it  as  susceptible  of  a  moral  demonstration.  The  following 
heads  of  argument,  were  they  fully  illustrated,  would  go  far  to 
carry  demonstration  to  the  mind  on  this  subject:  namely,  that 
there  are  numerous  bodies  in  the  universe  of  a  bulk  sufficient  to 
contain  myriads  of  intelligent  beings,  and  to  afford  them  enjoy- 
ment— that  there  appears,  in  the  constitution  of  many  of  these 
bodies,  a  variety  of  arrangements  evidently  adapted  to  this  end — 
that,  in  relation  to  the  planets  of  our  system,  there  are  many  cir- 
cumstances which  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  constitution 
of  our  globe  and  its  appendages.  They  have  annual  and  diurnal 
motions,  moons,  atmospheres,  mountains,  and  vales — that  light, 
and  heat,  and  colour,  appear  to  be  distributed  throughout  the  re- 
gions of  immensity;  and  that  these  agents  can  have  a  relation 
only  to  the  necessities  and  the  happiness  of  organized  intelligences 
■=-that  every  part  of  nature,  so  far  as  our  observations  on  ihu  sur- 
face of  this  globe  extend,  appears  to  exist  solely  for  the  stike  of 
sentient  beings — that  this  doctrine  is  more  worthy  of  the  infinite 
Creator,  and  gives  us  a  more  glorious  and  magnificent  idea  of  his 
nature,  than  to  suppose  his  benevolent  regards  confined  to  the 
globe  on  which  we  dwell.  When  these  and  a  variety  of  other 
arguments  are  considered,  in  connexion  Avith  the  ivisdom  and 
other  attributes  of  the  Deity,  they  amount  not  only  to  a  high  de- 
gree of  probability,  but  to  something  approaching  to  a  moral  de- 
monstration. But  to  illustrate  these  arguments  in  minute  detail, 
so  as  to  make  a  convincing  impression  on  the  mind,  Avould  re- 
quire a  volume  of  a  considerable  size.  The  author  flatters  him- 
self he  has  some  original  thoughts  on  this  subject,  which  may 
probably  see  the  light,  should  the  present  work  meet  with  public 
acceptance.  There  is  no  work  in  our  language,  which  takes  an 
extensive  view  of  this  subject,  in  connexion  with  the  attributes 
of  Deity  and  the  intimations  contained  in  Divine  revelation.  Fon- 
tenelle's  "Plurality  of  Worlds,"  contains  a  number  of  ingenious 
reasonings ;  but  he  treats  the  subject  in  too  light  and  flippant  a 
manner,  and  without  the  least  reference  to  a  Supreme  Intelligence. 
The  celebrated  Huygens,in  his  "■Cosmotheoros,^^  instead  of  attempt- 
ing to  prove  the  dictrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds,  takes  it  for 
granted,  and  indulges  chiefly  in  conjectures  respecting  the  orga- 
nical  structure  and  faculties  of  their  inhabitants.* 

*  Since  the  first  editions  of  this  work  were  published,  the  author  has 
fully  illustrated  the  topics  above  stated,  along  with  other  kindred  subjects, 
in  his  volumes  entitled  "  Celestial  Scenery,"  and  "  The  Sidereal  Hea- 
vens," which  are  embellished  with  numerous  engravings. 


394  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

That  the  Scriptures  are  silent  on  this  head^,  has  been  assumed 
by  some  as  a  presumptive  argument  that  this  doctrine  is  without 
a  sohd  ibundation.  1  have  already  endeavoured  to  show  that  this 
assumption  is  unfounded.*  A  plurality  of  worlds  is  more  than 
once  asserted  in  Scripture,  and  in  numerous  passages  is  evidently- 
taken  for  granted.  Celestial  intelligences  are  represented  as  ascrib- 
ing "  glory,  honour,  wisdom,  and  power,"  to  the  King  of  Heaven, 
"  because  he  hath  created  all  things,"  and  because  they  perceive 
his  works  to  be  ""^  great  and  marvellous."  But  if  all  the  great 
globes  in  the  firmament  were  only  so  many  frightful  deserts,  des- 
titute of  inhabitants,  such  a  universe  could  never  inspire  superior 
intelligences  with  admiration  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Creator.  For 
wisdom  consists  in  proportioning  means  to  ends;  but,  in  the  case 
supposed,  there  would  be  no  proportion  between  the  means  and 
the  end.  The  means  are  indeed  great  and  astonishing ;  but  no 
end  appears  to  justify  such  a  display  of  creating  energy.  The 
Psalmist,  when  he  contemplated  the  heavens,  was  so  affected  with 
the  idea  of  the  immense  population  of  the  universe,  that  he  seems 
to  have  been  almost  afraid  lest  he  should  be  overlooked  amidst  the 
immensity  of  beings  that  are  under  the  superintendence  of  God: 
*'  When  1  consider  thy  heavens — what  is  man  that  thou  art  mind- 
ful of  him!"  There  would  be  no  propriety  nor  emphasis  in  this 
exclamation,  if  the  heavenly  orbs  were  devoid  of  inhabitants ;  for, 
if  no  intelligent  beings  exist  besides  man,  and  a  colony  of  angels, 
i!  would  not  appear  Avonderful  that  the  Creator  should  exercise  a 
J  ,  ■  ticular  care  over  the  one  half  of  his  intelligent  offspring.  But  if 
we  conceive  the  universe  as  composed  of  ten  thousand  times  ten 
thousand  worlds,  peopled  with  myriads  of  intellectual  beings  of  va- 
rious orders,  the  sentiment  of  admiration  imphed  in  the  passage 
is  extremely  natural  and  emphatic,  and  conveys  to  us  an  impres- 
sive idea  of  the  intelligence,  beneficence,  and  condescension  of 
the  Divine  Being. 

Note  VII.  p.  246. — The  Bagiictreotype. 

The  only  deficiency  in  the  pictures  produced  my  means  of  the 
process  discovered  by  Daguerre  is,  that  they  do  not  represent  ob- 
jects, in  their  natural  colours,  as  exhibited  by  a  convex  lens  in  a 
dark  chamber.  It  is  not  unlikely,  however,  that  even  this  per- 
fection may  soon  be  attained.  It  has  been  just  now  (Sept.  1842) 
stated  in  the  pubHc  journals,  that  Mr.  Isenrig,  a  painter  at  Munich, 
has  announced,  that  he  has  discovered  a  process  by  which,  through 
the  Daguerreotype,  he  can  depict  all  the  objects  in  nature  with 
the  brilliancy  of  the  colours,  so  as  to  bear  comparison  with  the 
finished  productions  of  the  first  artists.  If  this  announcement  be 
correct,  we  may  soon  expect  to  have  all  the  most  interesting  vieAVS 
of  the  scenery  of  nature  and  the  operations  of  art  depicted  with 
an  accuracy  and  a  beauty,  which  have  been  hitherto  unattainable 
by  the  most  celebrated  artists. 

*  See  p.  226. 


APPENDIX.  395 


Note  VIII.  p.  258. — Electro-Magnetic  Machines. 

The  possibility  of  moving  small  pieces  of  mechanism  by  the 
action  of  the  electro-magnetic  power  has  been  known  for  some 
lime  past,  but  it  seems  never  to  have  been  practically  applied  on 
a  large  scale,  till  in  1837  it  was  adapted  to  the  propulsion  of  a  boat 
on  the  river  Neva,  by  Professor  Jacobi  of  Petersburgh.  On  the 
25th  Sept.,  1838,  a  galley,  28  feet  in  length  and  7i  in  breadth, 
was  provided  with  paddles  similar  to  those  of  a  steam  vessel.  The 
action  was  produced  from  320  pair  of  plates,  arranged  along  the 
,  sides  of  the  galley,  room  being  left  for  twelve  persons.  The  ves- 
sel was  made  to  proceed  against  the  stream,  and  the  speed  attained 
in  still  water  was  three  English  miles  per  hour.  The  plan  con- 
sisted in  rapidly  reversing  the  poles  during  the  action.  Since  the 
above  period  a  machine  has  been  contrived  by  Mr.  R.  Davidson 
of  Aberdeen,  in  which  a  reiterated  series  of  attractions  are  em- 
ployed to  produce  the  effect.  The  following  is  a  brief  account  of 
Mr.  Davidson's  experiments,  abridged  from  a  letter  of  Professor 
Forbes  of  King's  College,  Aberdeen.  Mr.  Davidson  has  made 
an  arrangement  by  which,  with  onlytwo  electro-magnets,  and  less 
than  one  square  foot  of  zinc  surface,  (the  negative  metal  being- 
copper)  a  lathe  is  driven  with  such  velocity,  as  to  be  capable  of 
turning  small  articles.  He  has  another  arrangement,  by  which, 
with  the  same  small  extent  of  galvanic  power,  a  small  carriage  is 
driven,  on  which  two  persons  are  carried  along  a  very  coarse 
wooden  floor  of  a  room.  He  has  likewise  a  third  arrangement 
not  yet  completed,  by  which,  from  the  imperfect  experiments  he 
has  made,  he  expects  to  gain  very  considerably  more  force  from 
the  same  extent  of  galvanic  power  than  from  either  of  the  other 
two.  The  first  two  machines  are  exceedingly  simple,  without  the 
least  perplexity,  and  therefore  easily  manageable,  and  not  liable 
to  derangement,  and  they  take  up  very  little  room.  As  yet,  the 
extent  of  power  of  which  they  are  capable  has  not  been  at  all 
ascertained,  as  the  size  of  the  battery  employed  is  so  trifling,  and 
the  magnets  so  few ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  a  very  great 
power,  in  no  degree  inferior  even  to  that  of  steam,  but  much  more 
manageable,  much  less  expensive,  and  occupying  greatly  less 
space — if  the  coals  be  taken  into  account — may  be  obtained.  The 
professor  considers  Mr.  Davidson's  inventions  to  be  so  interesting 
to  railroad  proprietors  in  particular,  that  it  would  be  much  for 
their  interest  to  take  up  the  subject  and  be  at  the  expense  of  mak- 
ing the  experiments  necessary  to  bring  this  power  into  operation 
on  a  great  scale.  The  difference  between  Professor  Jacobi's  plan 
and  Mr.  Davidson's  is  this ; — that  Jacobi  produces  motion  by 
changing  the  poles  of  the  magnets,  and  Mr.  Davidson,  by  cutting 
oiY  the  galvanic  current  at  given  points — the  power  alternating 
as  the  rotation  proceeds,  from  a  neutralized  magnet  to  a  newly 
charged  one.  In  both  experiments  it  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated that  the  power  of  the  magnet  is  increased,  by  increasing 


396  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER, 

the  diameter,  and  adding  to  the  length  of  the  helix.    The  power  is 
also  increased  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  bars. 

Note  IX,  p.  295. — On  the  first  Inventor  of  Printing. 

Mr,  Ireland,  in  his  ''Picturesque  Tour  through  Holland,  Bra- 
bant, and  part  of  France,  in  1789,"  gives  the  following  account 
of  the  inventor  of  printing,  when  describing  the  city  of  Haerlcm, 

"  Haerlem  claims  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing.  It  is  at- 
tributed to  Lawrence  Koster,  an  alderman  of  this  city,  in  1440  ; 
whose  house  is  yet  standing  in  the  market-place,  opposite  the 
church.  Amusing  himself  one  day  in  the  neighbouring  wood, 
with  cutting  the  bark  of  trees  into  letters  that  formed  the  initials 
of  his  name,  he  is  said  to  have  laid  them  on  paper,  and,  falling 
asleep,  when  he  awoke,  observed,  that,  from  the  dew,  their  form 
was  impressed  on  the  paper.  This  accident  induced  him  to  make 
farther  experiments  :  he  next  cut  his  letters  in  wood,  and,  dipping 
them  in  a  glutinous  liquid,  impressed  them  on  paper,  which  he 
found  an  improvement;  and,  soon  after,  substituting  leaden  and 
pewter  letters,  erected  a  press  in  his  house  ;  thus  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  this  noble  art,  which  has  thence  gradually  arisen  to  its 
present  excellence.  The  art,  it  is  said,  was  stolen  from  him  by 
his  servant,  John  Faustus,  who  conveyed  it  to  Mentz,  and,  from 
the  novelty  of  the  discovery,  soon  acquired  the  title  of  doctor  and 
conjuror.  The  original  specimens  are  now  shown  at  the  library 
in  the  town  hall.  The  first  is  on  a  leaf  of  parchment,  and  the 
second  and  third  on  paper,  printed  only  on  one  side,  and  the  cor- 
ners left  blank  for  capitals.  At  the  top  are  wooden  cuts,  repre- 
senting the  creation,  and,  as  it  is  called,  Lucifer's  fall." — pp. 
109-111. 

Note  X,  p.  304. — On  Telescopes  ;  ivith  a  brief  notice  of  a  New 
Reflecting  Telescope,  constructed  by  the  Author. 

It  is  doubtful  to  what  particular  individual  we  owe  the  inven- 
tion of  the  telescope.  Some  have  supposed  that  Roger  Bacon  and 
Baptista  Porta  invented  this  instrument.  BorelH  ascribes  the  in- 
vention to  Zacharias  Jansen,  a  native  of  Middleburg.  Perhaps 
the  account  given  in  the  article  to  which  this  note  refers,  and 
which  is  stated  by  a  variety  of  authors,  may  be  as  probable  as  any- 
other.  It  is  certain  the  telescope  was  not  in  general  use  until  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  that  no  discoveries  in 
the  heav'ens  were  made  with  it  till  1609. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  telescopes,  re/i'«cfmg-  and  reflecting.  In 
refracting  telescopes,  the  rays  of  light  pass  through  convex  or  con- 
cave glasses  or  lenses.  The  object-glass  is  always  convex,  and  forms 
an  image  or  picture  of  the  object  in  an  inverted  position  in  its  focus; 
which  image  is  viewed  by  the  eye-glass ;  and  the  magnifying  power 
is  in  the  proportion  of  the  focal  distance  of  the  object-glass  to  that 
of  the  eye-glass.  The  focal  distance  of  a  convex  glass  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  holding  it  in  the  rays  of  the  sun,  opposite  to  a  piece  of 


APPENDIX.      •  397 

white  paper,  and  measuring  the  distance  between  the  glass  and 
the  white  spot,  or  burning  point,  formed  on  the  paper.  An  astro- 
nomical telescope  for  viewing  celestial  objects  may  be  constructed 
with  only  two  glasses.  If  an  object-glass,  thirty  inches  focal  dis- 
tance, be  fixed  in  the  end  of  a  tube,  and  an  eye-glass  of  one  inch 
focus  be  placed  at  the  other  end,  at  the  distance  of  thirty-one  inches 
from  the  object-glass,  a  telescope  will  be  formed  which  will  mag- 
nify in  the  proportion  of  one  to  thirty,  or  thirty  times  ;  that  is, 
objects  seen  through  such  a  telescope  will  appear  thirty  times 
larger  in  diameter,  or  thirty  times  nearer  than  to  the  naked  eye.  By 
such  an  instrument,  the  inequalities  on  the  moon's  surface,  and 
some  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  may  be  perceived;  but  when  di- 
rected to  land  objects,  they  will  appear  inverted,  or  turned  upside 
down.  In  order  to  reverse  the  appearanee  of  the  object,  two  other 
eye-glasses  are  required  ; — or,  if  a  concave,  eye-glass  of  a  similar 
focus  be  placed  at  twenty-nine  inches  from  the  object-glass,  the 
object  will  appear  in  its  natural  position,  and  the  magnifying 
power  will  be  the  same;  but  the  field  of  view  will  be  much 
smaller.  Astronomical  telescopes  of  this  construction  were  for- 
merly made  of  one  hundred  and  twenty,  and  even  two  hundred 
feet  in  length,  and  were  used  without  a  tube  ;  the  object-glass  be- 
ing placed  on  the  top  of  a  long  pole;  but  these  are  now  entirely 
superseded  by  achromatic  telescopes.  In  the  achromatic  telescope, 
the  object-glass  is  compounded  of  two,  and  sometimes  of  three 
lenses,  placed  close  to  each  other,  one  of  which  is  a  double  con- 
cave of  white  flint  glass,  and  the  other  a  double  convex  of  crown 
glass.  By  this  means  an  image  is  formed  without  being  blended 
with  the  prismatic  colours ;  and  it  will,  therefore,  bear  a  larger 
aperture,  and  a  much  greater  magnifying  power  than  a  common 
refractor.  A  good  achromatic  telescope,  four  feet  long,  will  mag- 
nify objects  as  much  as  a  common  refractor  100  feet  long. 

In  reflecting  telescopes  the  images  of  objects  are  formed  by 
speculums  or  mirrors,  instead  of  lenses.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
the  Oregnriaii  and  the  JYewtonian.  The  Gregorian  reflector  ron- 
sists  of  a  tube  in  Avhich  a  concave  mirror,  having  a  hole  iii  its 
centre,  is  placed.  The  rays  of  light,  from  distant  objects  falling 
upon  this  mirror,  form  an  image  before  it,  in  its  centre  or  focus. 
This  image  is  intercepted  by  a  smaller  mirror,  which  reflects  it 
back  through  the  hole  in  the  large  mirror,  to  an  eye-glass,  through 
which  the  observer  views  the  object.  In  the  Newtonian  reflector, 
a  plane  mirror,  placed  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,  is  substi- 
tuted in  place  of  the  small  mirror,  in  the  Gregorian  construction, 
and  the  observer  looks  upon  the  object  through  the  side  of  the 
tube.  Sir  David  Brewster  has  suggested  an  interesting  improve- 
ment in  the  construction  of  this  instrument,  which  is  described  in 
the  Edin.  Eiicyc.  Art.  Optics,  p.  644. 

New  Reflector. — Several  years  ago,  the  author  commenced 
a  series  of  experiments  on  reflecting  telescopes ;  and  has  lately 
constructed  several  on  a  new  plan  and  principle.  In  this  con- 
struction there  is  no  small  speculum,  either  plane,  convex,  or  con- 
cave; there  is  no  tube,  except  a  short  one  of  two  or  three  inches 

34 


398  CHlftSTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

in  length,  for  holding  the  speculum.  The  observer  sits  with  his 
back  to  the  object,  and  views  the  image  formed  by  the  speculum 
through  an  eye-piece,  which  requires  to  be  nicely  directed  and 
adjusted.  Three  or  four  instruments  of  this  construction  have 
been  fitted  up,  with  specula  of  16,  28,  35,  and  49  inches  focal  dis- 
tance. One  of  them  having  a  speculum  of  eight  inches  focus, 
and  two  inches  diameter,  with  a  terrestrial  eye-piece,  magnifying 
about  25  times,  forms  an  excellent  parlour  telescope  for  viewing 
land  objects,  and  exhibits  them  in  a  brilliant  and  novel  aspect. 
When  compared  with  a  Gregorian  of  the  same  size  and  magnify- 
ing power,  the  quantity  of  light  upon  the  object  appears  nearly 
doubled,  and  the  image  is  equally  distinct.  It  represents  objects  in 
their  natural  colours,  without  that  dingy  and  yellowish  tinge  which 
appears  when  looking  through  a  Gregorian.  Another  of  these 
instruments,  having  a  speculum  of  28  inches  focal  distance,  and 
an  eye-piece  producing  a  magnifying  power  of  about  90  times, 
serves  as  an  excellent  astronomical  telescope.  By  this  instrument 
the  belts  and  sateUites  of  Jupiter,  the  ring  of  Saturn,  and  the 
mountains  and  cavities  of  the  moon,  may  be  contemplated  with 
great  ease  and  distinctness.  By  placing  the  pedestal  on  the  floor 
of  the  apartment,  when  the  object  is  at  a  high  elevation,  we  can 
view  celestial  phenomena  with  the  same  ease  as  if  we  were  sit- 
ting at  a  writing-desk  reading  a  book.  With  a  magnifying  power 
of  about  40  times  applied  to  this  telescope,  terrestrial  objects  appear 
extremely  bright  and  well  defined.  A  speculum  of  49  inches  focal 
distance,  and  G^  inches  diameter,  has  lately  been  fitted  up  on  the 
same  principle.  With  magnifying  powers  of  from  100  to  130 
times,  it  exhibits  distinct  and  interesting  views  of  the  moon's  sur- 
face and  of  the  ring  of  Saturn,  and  with  a  power  of  56  times  it 
affords  a  beautiful  view  of  land  objects.  The  specula  used  in  some 
of  these  instruments  are  far  from  being  good  ;  being  of  a  yellowish 
colour,  and  scarcely  half  poHshed,  and  having  large  holes  in  the 
centre;  as  they  were  originally  intended  for  Gregorian  reflectors  ; 
yet  the  brightness  of  vision  approaches  nearly  to  that  of  achro- 
matic telescopes.  The  experiments  which  have  been  made  on 
this  subject  demonstrate,  that  a  tube  is  not  necessary  for  a  reflect- 
ing telescope,  when  viewing  either  celestial  or  terrestrial  objects  ; 
and,  therefore,  this  construction  of  the  instrument  may  be  deno- 
minated, THE  AERIAL  REFLECTOR.  The  simplicity  of  the  con- 
struction, and  the  excellence  of  the  performance  of  these  instru- 
ments, have  been  much  admired  by  several  scientific  gentlemen 
to  whom  they  have  been  exhibited.* 

In  the  system  of  Optics,  lately  published  in  the  Edinburgh 


*  The  reader  will  find  a  more  particular  account  of  these  instruments, 
accompanied  with  engravings,  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  for 
July,  1826 — the  "  London  Encyclopedia,"  Art.  Telescope,  and  in  the 
"London  Mechanics'  Magazine,"  for  August,  1826.  The  author  will 
have  an  opportunity  of  giving  a  more  particular  description  of  these  and 
various  other  astronomical  instruments  in  a  work  which  will  shortly  be 
published. 


APPENDIX.  399 

Encyclopedia,  Tone  of  the  most  luminous  and  comprehensive 
tieatisps  which  has  yet  appeared  on  this  subject,)  the  writer,  in 
his  introduction  to  the  account  of  Sir  D.  Brewster's  improvement 
on  the  Newtonian  telescope,  remarks : — "  U  we  could  dispense 
with  the  use  of  the  small  specula  in  telescopes  of  moderate  length, 
by  inclining  the  great  speculum,  and  using  an  obhque,  and  con- 
sequently a  distorted  reflection,  as  proposed  first  by  La  Maire,  we 
should  consider  the  Newtonian  telescope  as  perfect,  and,  on  a 
large  scale,  or  when  the  instrument  exceeds  20  feet,  it  has  un- 
doubtedly this  character,  as  nothing  can  be  more  simple  than  to 
magnify,  by  a  single  eye-glass,  the  image  formed  by  a  single 
speculum.  As  the  front  view  is  quite  impracticable,  and,  indeed, 
has  never  been  attempted  in  instruments  of  a  small  size,  it  becomes 
of  great  practical  consequence  to  remove  as  much  as  possible  the 
evils  which  arise  from  the  use  of  a  small  speculum,"  &c.  The 
instruments  noticed  above  have  effectuated  the  desirable  object 
alluded  to  by  this  respectable  writer  ;  and  the  principle  of  the  con- 
struction is  neither  that  of  Sir  W.  Herschel's /ro/if  view,  nor  does 
it  coincide  with  that  proposed  by  La  Maire,  which  seems  to  have 
been  a  mere  hint,  which  was  never  put  into  execution. 

Note  XI,  p.  308. —  On  steam  navigation,  ^-c. 

The  application  of  steam,  as  a  mechanical  power,  for  impelling 
vessels  and  carriages,  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  useful 
achievements  of  art  w^hich  distinguish  the  present  age,  and  is 
rapidly  producing  an  important  and  interesting  change  both  on 
inland  and  foreign  intercourse.  The  fact  that  a  vessel  can  be  im- 
pelled by  steam,  against  wind  and  tide,  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles 
an  hour,  and  a  carriage  on  a  railway  with  a  velocity  of  thirty  and 
upwards,  is  sufHcient  to  account  for  such  a  change.  From  the 
Report  of  a  Committee  of  Parliament,  published  in  1822,  it 
appears,  that  the  first  apphcation  of  steam  to  the  impelling  of 
vessels  was  made  by  an  Englishman  of  the  name  of  Hull,  Avho, 
in  1736,  obtained  a  patent  for  the  invention  of  a  steam-boat,  to  be 
moved  with  a  crank  and  paddles.  But  it  was  only  in  1807  that 
the  invention  was  fairly  brought  into  practical  use  by  Mr.  Fulton, 
who  had  the  advice  and  assistance  of  Mr.  Bell,  a  Scottish  en- 
gineer. In  Britain,  the  first  successful  application  of  steam  to  ves- 
sels was  made  by  Mr.  Bell,*  who  buih  the  Comet,  of  25  tons  and 
4  horse  power,  to  ply  on  the  Clyde.  Glasgow,  which  had  the 
honour  of  introducing  steam  navigation  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
is  still  the  seat  of  its  greatest  activity.  In  1840,  there  were  no 
less  than  76  steamers  of  various  sizes,  comprising  nearly  8000 
tons,  plying  on  the  Clyde.     Some  of  these,  besides  performing 

*  It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  and  is  certainly  not  congenial  to  the  gene- 
rovis  spirit  o\  the  age,  that  this  gentleman,  who  was  among  the  first  in- 
ventors of  steam  navigation,  and  who  did  so  much  to  promote  ils  success 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Glasfjovv,  never  received  any  public  reward  for  his 
services,  but  was  allowed  to  finish  his  days  in  a  condition  approaching  to 
poverty. 


400  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

regular  voyages  to  Inverary,  Campbeiton,  Belfast,  Dublin,  Lon- 
donderry, Cork,  Bristol,  Liverpool,  and  other  places,  are  also  per- 
forming tours  during  the  summer  months,  to  the  Giant's  Cause- 
way, Stafia,  Skye,  and  other  parts  of  the  Western  isles,  and  to 
Inverness  by  the  Caledonian  canal.  Steam  vessels  are  also  ply- 
ing between  Inverness  and  London,  Perth  and  Dundee,  Dumfries 
and  Liverpool,  Aberdeen  and  Leith,  Dundee  and  London,  Aber- 
deen and  London,  Leith  and  Dundee,  Leith  and  London,  Dover 
and  Calais — from  Liverpool  to  Lisbon,  Cadiz,  Gibraltar,  Malaga, 
&c.  In  1840  there  were,  throughout  Great  Britain  and  its  colo- 
nies, no  less  than  630  steam  vessels,  possessing  an  aggregate 
burden  of  71,000  tons.  The  rivers  on  which  these  vessels  chiefly 
ply  are  the  Thames,  the  Severn,  the  Mersey,  the  Tyne,  the  Tay, 
the  Forth,  and  the  Clyde.  From  the  Thames  steamers  proceed 
to  Rotterdam,  Boulogne,  Havre,  and  many  other  ports  on  the 
continent.  From  Liverpool  steam-vessels  now  regularly  sail  lo 
the  West  Indies  and  America,  These  vessels  are  of  enormous 
size.  The  Great  IVestem,  the  first  steamer  which  sailed  to 
America.is  1340  tons  burden.  The  Victoria  is  a  vessel  of  500  horse 
power,  and  27  feet  longer  than  our  largest  man-of-war.  The  Bri- 
tish Qiietn  measures  in  entire  length  275  feet.  Her  two  engines 
are  of  2.50  horse  powder  each,  and  she  is  calculated  to  carry  1862 
tons.  Her  outward  voyage  of  18  days  requires  a  consumption 
of  540  tons  of  coal,  and  her  homeward  voyage  of  12  days  360 
tons.  But  larger  vessels  than  even  these  are  now  in  preparation. 
A  regular  communication  is  also  now  established  by  steam  be- 
tween Britain  and  India,  by  the  Mediterranean,  Egypt,  and  the 
Red  sea. 

Steam  navigation  on  the  continent  is  likewise  making  rapid  pro- 
gress. Steam  vessels  are  now  to  be  found  on  the  Garonne, 
Seine,  Danube,  Rhine,  Rhone,  Lakes  of  Geneva  and  Constance, 
&c.  It  is  likely  that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  such  convey- 
ances will  be  estabhshed  on  most  of  the  friths  and  rivers  both  in 
Europe  and  America;  and  the  period  is  no  doubt  hastening  on, 
when  voyages  will  be  made  \n  such  vehicles  to  the  most  distant 
regions  of  the  world.  A  steam  vessel  has,  for  many  years,  been 
sailing  regularly,  summer  and  winter,  between  New  York  and 
New  Orleans,  a  distance  of  two  thousand  miles,  in  an  open  sea, 
exposed  to  great  storms.  On  the  coasts  and  rivers  of  North 
America  steam  navigation  is  carried  on  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  in  Great  Britain,  or  any  other  country.  There  are  about 
five  hundred  steam  vessels,  most  of  them  of  a  very  large  size, 
plying  on  the  Ohio,  Mississippi  and  other  western  waters.  In 
this  country,  steam  vessels  are  fitted  up  with  every  accommoda- 
tion and  elegance  which  art  can  devise  ;  so  as  to  produce,  if  pos- 
sible, as  great  a  variety  of  enjoyment  to  passengers  on  sea  as  on 
land.  Mr.  Church,  the  American  consul  in  France  in  1822, 
invented  a  paddle  that  revolves  on  the  paddle-wheel  by  a  very 
simple  mechanism,  which  is  found  to  save  power.  In  the  United 
States,  a  new  mode  of  constructing  cabins  has  been  introduced, 
so  as  to  place  them  beyond  the  reach  of  injury  from  explosions 


APPENDIX.  401 

of  the  boiler.  "  The  American  steam  vessels  are  larger  than  ours, 
and  much  more  used  for  the  conveyance  of  merchandise.  The 
average  proportion  is  about  1  horse  power  lor  every  4  tons  of 
burden,  computed  in  the  usual  way.  The  velocity  is  found  to  be 
nearly  as  the  square  root  of  the  power,  so  that  an  80  horse 
power  engine  will  produce  only  twice  the  velocity  of  one  of  20 
horse  power.  Something  depends  also  on  the  make  and  size  of 
the  vessel.  Several  years  ago,  the  Sovereign,  of  210  tons,  and  80 
horse  power,  went  9|  miles  an  hour  in  still  water;  and  the  James 
Watt,  of  448  tons,  and  100  horse  power,  10  miles.  For  the  pad- 
dle-boards, the  rule  is,  that  S-lOlhs  of  a  square  foot  of  surface 
be  immersed  in  the  water  for  each  horse  power.  Mr.  Gladstone 
affirms,  tliat  so  much  power  is  wasled  in  displacing  the  water  by 
the  stroke  of  ihe  board,  that  the  velocity  of  the  ship  is  only  about 
one- half  of  that  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  paddle-wheel.  There 
are  two  sources  of  apprehension  in  steam  vessels — fire  and  the 
bursting  of  the  boiler.  With  regard  to  the  latter,  when  the  boiler 
is  of  low  pressure,  it  is  satisfactorily  established  that  not  the 
smallest  danger  exists.  And  in  the  best  constructed  vessels,  the 
danger  from  fire  is  completely  obviated,  by  separating  the  furnace 
from  the  sides  of  the  vessel  by  five  inches  of  water." 

An  interesting-  report  was  published  some  years  ago  of  a  series 
of  experiments,  made  with  a  new  steam  engine,  invented  by  an 
American  machinist,  called  the  capHlanj  steam  engine.  Three 
great  objects  are  said  to  be  accomplished  by  this  invention — 
lightness,  safety,  and  economy  of  fuel.  In  an  engine  calculated  for 
a  4  horse  power,  the  generator  is  formed  of  a  copper  tube,  l-4th 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  100  feet  long,  which  weighs  about 
16  lbs.  It  IS  arranged  in  coils,  one  above  another,  in  the  form  of 
a  sugar-loaf,  30  inches  high;  the  bottom  coil  being  18  inches  in 
diameter,  and  the  top  one  considerably  less.  The  wood  is  prepared 
as  is  usual  for  a  stove,  and  put  within  the  coils.  The  steam  cy- 
lind-'v  is  formed  of  sheet  copper,  3  inches  in  diameter,  27  inches  in 
stroke,  and,  with  all  its  appendages,  weighs  about  251bs._  It  has 
been  ascertained,  that  the  generator  and  main  cylinder,  with  their 
contents  and  appendages,  exclusive  of  fuel,  need  not  weigh  more 
than  20  lbs.  to  the  horse  power.  JVo  harm  can  he  done  by  the 
bursting  ff  boilers — even  a  safety-valve  is  considered  as  useless. 
In  the  course  of  the  experiments,  the  experimenters  several  times 
burst  the  tube;  but  so  far  from  doing  any  injury,  it  could  not 
always  be  perceived  by  the  spectators. 

To  ascertain  what  may  be  done  towards  aerial  navigation  by 
steam,  experiments  were  made  on  the  power  of  wings  in  the  air, 
and  on  the  power  necessary  to  work  them.  The  result  is,  that  it 
requires  a  horse  power  to  carry  30 lbs.  in  the  air;  so  that  a  flying 
engine,  to  be  worked  by  charcoal,  would  weigh  about  30  lbs.  to 
the  horse  power,  wings,  condenser,  and  fuel  included.  It  was 
also  ascertained  by  experiments  and  calculations,  that  a  balloon 
could  be  made  to  carry  a  man  with  an  engine,  which  would  push 
it  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  miles  an  hour  in  the  air.  A  more  parlicu- 
34* 


402  CHRISTIAN  rHILOSOPHER. 

lar  detail  of  these  experiments  may  be  seen  in  the  London  Mech. 
Matr.,  No.  60,  for  16th  Oct.,  18.24. 

'"What  steam  is  doing  to  facihtate  intercourse  by  water,  it  is 
also  doing  on  land.  By  means  of  the  iron  railway,  the  speed  of 
travelling  in  steam  carriages  is  treble  thai  which  is  attainable  by 
horses.  The  railway  course  is  level;  to  accomphsh  which  the 
same  obstacles  have  to  be  overcome  in  its  construction  that  are  met 
with  in  making  a  canal — the  high  ground  to  be  cut  through,  and 
bridges  to  be  thrown  over  the  low.  Since  the  railway  for  steam 
carriages  between  Liverpool  and  Manchester  was  opened,  a  few 
years  ago,  the  country  has  been  getting  intersected  by  others  in 
every  direction.  Between  these  two  towns,  the  number  of  pas- 
sengers by  this  mode  of  conveyance  averages  about  1300  daily. 
To  transport  all  these  by  four  horse  coaches,  each  allowed  to  carry 
twenty  individuals  and  to  travel  sixty  miles  per  day,  and  each 
horse  to  run  twenty  miles,  would  require  upwards  of  32  of  such 
coaches  and  390  horses.  Travelling  by  steam  is  also  making  rapid 
progress  on  the  continent  and  in  America.  Between  Paris  and 
St.  Germain,  a  substantial  railway  has  been  lately  opened,  with 
105  vehicles,  for  passengers  only,  capable  of  containing  4070  per- 
sons, and  of  transporting  the  whole  population  of  Paris  to  St. 
Germain  in  one  day.  This  railway  traverses  no  fewer  than 
eighteen  bridges,  three  of  which  are  across  the  Seine.  The  rails 
are  fifteen  times  heavier  than  those  between  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester. Steam  carriages  have  repeatedly  been  constructed  to  run 
on  common  roads;  but  the  friction  there  is  so  great,  except  where 
the  ground  is  very  smooth  and  level,  that,  with  other  impedi- 
ments, they  have  not  been  found  to  run  to  advantage." 

Among  the  numerous  purposes  to  which  steam  is  now  ap- 
plied is  that  of  breaking  stones  for  the  construction  of  roads.  The 
stones  are  put  into  a  kind  of  hopper  above,  and  pushed  down 
with  a  rake,  and  the  machine  is  worked  by  a  rotatory  motion  of 
one  horse  power ;  and  will  break  a  ton  of  hard  pebbles,  com- 
pletely, in  from  six  to  eight  minutes.  A  steam  machine  has  also 
been  invented  for  the  dressing  of  woollen  cloth,  which  does  as 
much  work  in  fiftv  minutes  as  two  men  could  do  in  two  days. — 
Man.  Mig.  Aug.,  1823,  p.  71. 

Note  XII,  p.  379. — Strictures  on  a  certain  sentiment  respecting 
the  work  of  human  redemption. 

i  The  sentiment  referred  to  in  this  paragraph,  "  That  there  never 
was  nor  ever  will  be,  through  all  the  ages  of  eternity,  so  wonder- 
ful a  display  of  the  Divine  glory  as  in  the  cross  of  Christ,"  has 
been  frequently  reiterated,  in  sermons  and  in  systems  of  divinity, 
and  is  still  repeated  by  certain  preachers,  as  if  it  were  an  incon- 
trovertible axiom,  which  ought  never  to  be  called  in  question; 
and  is,  no  doubt,  intended  to  magnify  the  Divine  attributes,  and 
the  work  of  redemption.  But  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  pre- 
sumptuous assumption,  which  has  a  tendency  to  limit  the  perfec- 


APPENDIX.  403 

lions  of  Deity,  and  to  present  a  partial  and  distorted  view  of  the 
economy  of  human  redemption.  For,  in  the  first  place,  it  has  no 
foundation  in  Scripture.  There  is  not  a  single  passage  from 
which  it  can  be  legitimately  deduced.  The  onus  prohandi,  on  this 
point,  rests  with  those  who  make  the  assertion.  A  gentleman, 
when  lately  conversing  on  this  subject,  brought  forward  the  fol- 
lowing interrogation,  as  a  demonstrative  argument,  in  proof  of 
the  position  in  question  :  "  Is  not  redemption  declared  in  Scrip- 
ture to  be  the  chief  of  all  the  ivorks  of  God  ?'^  but  he  was  not  a  little 
surprised,  when  he  was  informed,  that  the  passage,  which  he  had 
partly  misquoted,  is  applied  to  the  Behemoth,  or  the  Elephant,  as 
stated  in  Job,  xl,  19.  2ndly,  The  assertion  is  as  presumptuous 
as  it  is  unfounded.  It  takes  for  granted,  that  we  know  all  the 
events  which  have  already  happened,  and  which  are  now  taking 
place  throughout  the  whole  range  of  God's  universal  empire. 
This  empire  appears  unbounded ;  and  that  portion  of  it  which 
we  can  minutely  explore,  is  but  as  a  point  in  comparison  of  the 
whole.  But  before  we  can,  on  good  grounds,  hazard  such  an 
assertion  as  that  under  consideration,  we  must  have  explored  all 
the  dispensations  of  God,  through  every  portion  of  his  vast  domi- 
nions ;  and  be  able  to  form  a  comparison  between  the  different 
displays  of  Divine  glory,  made  to  all  the  different  classes  of  intel- 
lectual beings  under  the  government  of  the  Creator.  And  who, 
among  the  sons  of  Adam,  can  lay  claim  to  such  high  qualifica- 
tions for  pronouncing  so  sweeping  a  decision  on  this  point? — • 
Srdly,  It  sets  limits  to  the  Divine  perfections  and  operations.  Fur 
although  it  could  be  proved,  (which  it  cannot  be,)  that  no  such 
displays  have  hitherto  been  made  to  any  other  beings,  yet  who 
can  take  upon  him  to  assert,  that  displays  of  Divine  perfection, 
far  more  glorious  and  astonishing,  will  not  be  exhibited  during 
the  countless  ages  of  eternity  which  are  yet  to  come?  To  set 
limits  to  the  operations  of  the  almighty  power  and  boundless  be- 
nevolence, during  the  lapse  of  infinite  duration,  is  not  the  pro- 
vince of  any  created  intelligence,  and  far  less  of  man,  who  stands 
so  low  in  the  scale  of  universal  being.  4thly,  It  tends  to  damp 
the  hopes  and  prospects  of  immortal  beings,  when  looking  forward 
to  an  interminable  existence.  For  this  sentiment  leads  them  to 
conclude,  that  they  are  already  acquainted  with  the  greatest  dis- 
plays of  Divine  glory  which  can  be  made;  and  that,  whatever 
scenes  of  wonder  may  be  exhibited  in  the  future  world,  they 
must,  of  course,  be  all  inferior  to  this,  in  point  of  extent  and 
grandeur. 

The  redemption  of  the  human  race,  as  displayed  in  the  Chris- 
tian revelation,  is  a  theme  sufficiently  grand,  astonishing,  and 
interesting,  to  command  the  attention  of  all  who  are  convinced 
that  they  belong  to  an  apostate  race  of  intelligences,  and  to  excite 
the  admiration  and  gratitude  of  all  who  have  experienced  its  bene- 
fits; and  it  stands  in  no  need  of  such  unfounded  and  extravagant 
assertions,  to  display  its  riches  and  glory.  "Will  a  man 
speak  deceitfully  for  God?  Shall  not  his  excellency  make  you 
afraidj  and  his  dread  fall  upon  you?"    We  pronounce  nothing 


404  CHRISTIAN  PHILObOPIIER. 

decisively  on  this  subject.  We  feel  ourselves  chained  down  to  an 
obscure  corner  of  God's  dominions — to  be  in  the  very  infancy  of 
our  knowledge,  and  withal  to  be  connected  with  a  race  of  beings 
whose  "  understandings  are  darkened  by  reason  of  sin  5"  and  are 
therefore  unable  to  pronounce  an  infallible  decision  on  what  God 
will,  or  will  not  do.  Were  we  to  hazard  a  conjecture  on  this 
subject,  we  would  say,  that  the  converse  of  the  proposition  under 
consideration,  is  more  probable  than  the  proposition  itself.  We 
can  conceive  worlds  ten  thousand  times  more  populous  than  ours, 
and  peopled  with  a  higher  order  of  intellectual  beings,  towards 
whom  a  similar  display  of  benevolence  and  mercy,  were  it  neces- 
sary, may  be  made;  and,  therefore,  in  point  of  the  extent  of  its 
objects,  we  can  conceive  the  love  of  God  more  illustriously  mani- 
fested than  even  to  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe.  But  whether 
such  an  event  shall  ever  take  place,  it  would  be  presumption  in 
us  to  determine.  For  the  thoughts  and  the  ways  of  God  as  far 
transcend  ours,  ''  as  the  heavens  are  high  above  the  earth."  It 
demands  our  highest  tribute  of  grateful  adoration,  that  the 
Almighty  condescended  to  "  regard  us  in  our  low  estate,"  and  to 
deliver  us  from  the  moral  degradation  into  which  we  had  fallen; 
but,  surely,  it  would  be  unreasonable  to  conclude,  from  this  con- 
sideration, that,  of  all  the  rational  tribes  which  people  the 
universe,  man  is  the  only  favourite  of  the  Most  High,  ''when 
thousand  worlds  are  rourid."  Though  myriads  of  other  intel- 
ligences weie  to  share  in  similar  favours,  it  would  not  lessen 
the  happiness  conferred  on  us,  nor  ought  it,  in  the  lea.st,  to  de- 
tract from  our  admiration  of  '-  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus  our  Lord." 

There  are  a  great  many  other  vague  and  untenable  notions 
which  are  entertained  and  reiterated  by  certain  commentators,  and 
divines,  as  indisputable  axioms,  which  it  would  be  of  importance 
to  the  cause  of  religion  to  discard;  such  as — that  angels  are  pure 
immaterial  substances — that  they  were  formed  on  the  first  day  of 
the  Mosaic  creation — that  the  ivisdom  of  God  is  nowhere  so  illus- 
triously displayed  throughout  the  universe  as  in  the  scheme  of 
redemption — that  the  chief  employment  of  the  future  Avorld  will 
be  to  pry  into  the  mysteries  of  salvation — that  sin  is  an  infinite 
evil — that  the  whoh'  material  universe  was  brought  into  existence 
at  the  same  time  with  our  earth — that  the  Creator  ceased  to  create 
any  new  order  of  beings  in  the  universe,  after  arranging  the 
fabric  of  our  globe — that  the  whole  system  of  material  nature  in 
heaven  and  earth,  will  be  destroyed  at  the  period  of  the  dissolu- 
tion of  our  world — that  our  thoughts  and  affections  should  be 
completely  detached  from  all  created  things,  8i.c. — f^everal  vague 
notions  of  this  description  are  founded  on  the  false  assumption, 
that  the  globe  we  inhabit,  and  the  rational  beings  that  have  ap- 
peared on  its  surface  from  age  to  age.  are  \\\e  chiif  objects  of  God's 
superintendence  and  care — and  that  the  Scriptures  are  the  only 
medium  through  which  we  can  view  the  plans  and  operations  of 
the  Deity — assumptions,  which  are  contrary  to  reason,  which  are 
unwarranted  in  revelation,  nay,  which  are  directly  contradicted 


APPE-NDIX. 


405 


in  numerous  passages  of  Scripture,  some  of  which  have  already 
been  referred  to  in  the  course  of  this  volume.  It  would  be  of  essen- 
tial service  to  the  cause  of  Christianity,  that  its  doctrines,  facts, 
and  moral  requisitions  were  uniformly  exhibited  in  their  native 
simplicity  and  sfrandeur,  without  being  obscured  anddistorted  by 
the  vague  and  ^extravagant  representations  with  which  they  are 
too  frequently  blended  by  injudicious  minds. 

Note  Xlll.— Extracts  from  Dr.  Dwight's  Tiieolognj. 

As  authority  has  a  considerable  degree  of  weight  on  some 
minds,  I  shall  conclude  with  an  extract  on  the  subject  of  this 
volume,  from  that  respectable  and  enlightened  divine.  Dr.  Dwight, 
late  president  of  Yale  College :—"  The  works  of  God  were  by 
him  intended  to  be,  and  are  in  fact,  manifestations  of  himself; 
proofs  of  his  character,  presence,  and  agency.  In  this  light  he 
requires  men  continually  to  regard  them;  and  to  refuse  this  re- 
gard is  considered  by  him  as  grossly  wicked,  and  highly  deserving 
of  punishment.  Psalm  xxviii,  5  ;  Isaiah,  v,  12-14.  I  am  appre- 
hensive, that  even  good  men  are  prone  to  pay  less  attention  to  the 
works  of  creation  and  providence  than  piety  demands,  and  ihe 
Scriptures  require.  We  say  and  hear  so  much  concerning  the 
insufficiency  of  these  works  to  unfold  the  character  of  God,  and 
the  nature  of  genuine  rehgion,  that  we  are  prone  to  consider  them 
as  almost  uninstructive  in  moral  things,  and  in  a  great  measure 
useless  to  the  promotion  of  piety.  This,  however,  is  a  palpable, 
and  dangerous  error.  The  works  alone,  without  the  aid  of  the 
Scriptures,  would,  I  acknowledge,  be  far  less  instructive  than 
they  now  are,  and  utterly  insutficient  to  guide  us  in  the  way  of 
righteousness.  The  Scriptures  were  designed  to  be  a  comment 
on  these  works  ;  to  explain  their  nature,  and  to  show  us  the 
agency,  purposes,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  God  in  their  forma- 
tion. Thus  explained,  thus  illuminated,  they  become  means  of 
knowledge,  very  extensive  and  eminently  useful.  He  who  does 
not  find  in  the  various,  beautiful,  subhme,  awful,  and  astonish- 
ing objects,  presented  to  us  in  creation  and  providence,  irresistible 
and  glorious  reasons,  for  admiring,  adoring,  loving,  and  praising 
his  Creator,  has  not  a  claim  to  evangelical  piety."— Sys^ern  of 
Theology,  vol.  iii.,  p.  487. 

Note  XIV. — List  of  popular  works  on  the  different  sciences 
treated  of  in  this  volume,  with  occasional  remarks. 

SELECT  BOOKS  ON  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

Goldsmhh's  History  of  the  Earth  and  Animated  Nature, — 
with  numerous  notes  from  the  works  of  the  most  distinguished 
British  and  foreign  naturalists,  embodying  the  most  recent  disco- 
veries in  Natural  History— illustrated  by  nearly  2000  figures,  in 
2  vols,  royal  8vo.,  edited  by  Mr.  Whitelaw,  and  published  by 
Blackie  and  Son.  This  edition  of  Goldsmith  is  unquestionably 
the  most  complete  that  has  yet  appeared.     It  contains  nearly 


406  CHRISTIAN    rniLOSOPHEll. 

double  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  original  work,  and  an  account 
of  the  latest  discoveries  down  to  the  period  of  its  publication  in 
1840.  The  Gallery  of  Nature  and  Art,  by  Dr.  Mason  Good  and 
others,  6  vols.  8vo.  Spectacle  de  la  JYatiire,  or  Nature  \)i<- 
played,  7  vols,  12mo.  Nature  Displayed,  by  Dr.  Simeon  Shaw, 
3  vols.  8vo.,  or  in  6  vols.  l2mo.  This  work,  though  chi(-iiy 
a  compilation,  embodies  a  great  variety  of  interesting  and  popular 
descriptions  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  in  the  sysleui  of 
nature,  which  are  illustrated  with  numerous  engravings,  both- 
plain  and  coloured.  Clarke's  Hundred  Wonders  of  the  VV^orlJ, 
1  vol.  12mo.,  and  Piatt's  Book  of  Curiosities,  contain  a  number 
of  interesting  selections  on  this  subject.  Smellie's  Philosopiiy  of 
Natural  History,  2  vols.  4to.,  and  his  translation  of  Buiibii's 
Natural  History.  Bingley's  Animal  Biography,  4  vols.  8vo. 
"Works  entitled  '•  Systems"  and  "•  Elements"  of  Natural  History  " 
are  numerous;  but  the  greater  part  of  them  is  confined  to  de- 
scriptions of  the  forms,  habits,  and  instincts  of  animals.  On  this 
department  of  natural  science,  a  work  was  published  some  tune 
ago,  by  the  celebrated  Cuviek,  entitled  TJie  Animal  King-dotn, 
with  engravings  chiefly  from  the  living  subjects  in  the  Miis^uin 
of  Natural  History  at  Paris.  A  work  on  the  same  subject  has 
been  publishing  for  several  years  past,  in  12mo.  vols.,  entitled 
The  jyaturalisfs  Library,  by  Sir  W.  Jardine.  Every  volume 
contains  about  34  plates,  with  the  figures  coloured  from  nature, 
along  with  a  biographical  sketch,  and  a  portrait  of  some  eminent 
naturalist  or  philosopher.  About  40  vols,  have  already  been  pub- 
lished, price  6s.  each,  A  popular  and  comprehensive  history 
of  the  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  the  earth,  the 
atmosphere,  the  meteors,  the  heavens,  &c.,  calculated  for  general 
readers,  and  interspersed  with  appropriate  moral  and  religious 
reflections,  is  still  a  desideratum.  The  facts  of  natural  history, 
next  to  the  facts  recorded  in  the  sacred  volume,  are  the  first  sub- 
jects to  which  the  minds  of  the  young  should  be  directed  in  the 
course  of  a  general  education. 

SELECT  BOOKS  ON  GEOGRAPHY. 

Pinkerton's  Modern  Geography,  2  vols.  4to.,  and  the  i\bric]ge- 
ment,  1  vol.  8vo.  The  Glasgow  Geography,  in  5  vols,  8vo. 
This  work  comprehends  an  immense  mass  of  information  on  the 
historical  and  descriptive  parts  of  Geography.  It  also  contains 
comprehensive  compends  of  Astronomy,  Geology,  Meteorology, 
&.C.  Malte  Brun's  System  of  Geography,  7  vols.  8vo.  The 
English  translation  of  this  work  contains  the  fullest  and  most 
comprehensive  view  of  universal  geography  that  has  yet  appeared 
in  our  language,  including  details  of  the  most  recent  discoveries. 
The  first  volume  contain^  a  luminous  and  comprehensive  outline 
of  the  science  of  Geology  and  Physical  and  Mathematical  Geo- 
graphy,— rvlurray's  Encyclopedia  of  Geography,  1  vol.  8\^o. 
This  work  contains  a  great  mass  of  information  on  the  subjects 
connected  with  geography,  and  numerous  engravings. — Wood- 


APPENDIX.  407 

bridge's  System  of  Universal  Geography,  with  maps  and  nume- 
rous engravings. — Bell's  Geography. — Myer's  System  of  Modern 
Geography,  with  maps,  views,  engravings  representing  costumes,, 
&c.,  2  large  vols.  4to. — Cooke's  System  of  Universal  Geography,' 
in  2  very  large  4to.  volumes  closely  printed,  contains  a  great 
variety  of  interesting  sketches   in   relation    to  Descriptive  Geo- 
graphy, extracted  from  the  writings  of  Modern  Voyagers  and 
Travellers  ;  the  details  of  incidents,  &c.,  being  related,  for  the 
most  part,  in  the  words  of  the  respective  authors  from  whom  the 
information    is    collected. — Winterbotham's    Geographical    and 
Historical  View  of  the  United  States  of  America,  &c.,  4  vols. 
8vo. — Morse's   American  Geography,   8vo. — Goldsmith's    Geo- 
graphy on  a  popular  plan,  contains  an  interesting  account  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  nations,  for  the  entertainment  and  in- 
struction of  the  young,  illustrated  with  above  60  engravings.     Of 
smaller  systems,  there  is  a  great  abundance  in  the  English  lan- 
gu;ige;  but   most  of  them  are  extremely  deficient,  particularly  in 
what   relates    to    General   Geography. — On  Sacred  Geography, 
Well's  Geography,  modernized  by  the  Editor  of  Calmet's  Dic- 
tionary, is  the  most  complete  work  of  its  kind. — On  Physical  or 
General  Geography  :  Playfair's  System  of  Geography,  vol.    1, 
and  Varenius'  General  Geography.    A  Modern  System  of  Gene- 
ral Geography,  in  a  separate  form,  on  the  plan  of  Varenius,  is  a 
desideratum. —  Edin.  Encyc.  Art.  Geography. — Encyc.  Brit.   7th 
edition.  Art.  Physical   Geography,  &c.     I3ooks  of  Voyages  and 
Travels  generally  contain  the  most  circumstantial  details  of  the 
physical  aspects  of  the  different  countries,  and  of  the  dispositions 
and  customs  of  their  inhabitants  ;  and  present  to  the  view  of  the 
Christian  philanthropist,  those  facts  and  incidents,  from  which 
the  mm-al  state  and  character  of  the  various  tribes  of  human  beings 
may  be  inferred.     The  following  works  contain  .comprehensive 
abridgements  of  the  most  celebrated  voyages  and  travels  : — Pinker- 
ton's  General  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels  in  all  parts  of 
the  World,  17  vols.  4to.— Mavor's  Voyages,  &c.,  28  vols.  18mo. 
—The  World  Displayed,  18  vols.  18mo.— Phillips'  Collection  of 
Voyages  and  Travels,  8tc.— Conder's  Modern  Traveller,  20  vols. 
The  following  are  among  the  most  respectable  modern  publica- 
tions on  this  subject,  arranged  according  to  the  different  quarters 
of  the  world  : — Asia.    Valentia's  Travels  in  India,   Arabia,  &c. 
— Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  Armenia,  &c. — Golownin's  Tra- 
vels in  Japan. — Staunton's  Account  of  Macartney's  Embassy  to 
China. — Raffle's  Travels  in  Java. — Clarke's  Travels  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor and  the  Ploly  Land. — Chateaubriand's  Travels  in  Palestine. — 
Ali  Bey's  Travels   in  Arabia. — Sir  Alexander  Burness'  Travels 
in  India,  &c. — Stephens'  Incidents  of  Travels  in  Egypt,  Arabia 
Petrea,  and  the  Holy  Land. — Morier's  Travels  through  Persia. — 
Historical  and  Descriptive  Account  of  British  India,  3  vols. — His- 
torical  and   Descriptive  Account  of  China,  3  vols. — Crichton's 
History  of  Arabia. — Frazer's  Account  of  Persia. — Russell's  Pa- 
lestine,  &L.C. — Africa.     Lyon's   Travels   in   Northern  Africa. — • 
Burckhardl's  Travels  in  Nubia. — Bruce'ss  Travels  in  Abyssinia.— 


408  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

Sail's  Travels  in  Abyssinia. — Bowditch's,  Hutton's,  and  Dupiiis' 
Account  of  Ashantee. — Park's  and  Lander's  Travels  in  Africa. 
— Leigh's  Journey  in  Egypt. — Belzoni's  Travels  in  Egypt. — So- 
nini's  Travels  in  Egypt. — Barrow's,  Burchell's,  and  Campbell's 
Travels  in  Southern  Africa. — Russell's  Account  of  Nubia,  Abys- 
sinia, and  the  Barbary  States,  and  View  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Egypt. — Narrative  of  Discovery  and  Adventure  in  Africa,  with 

IliusUTitions  of  the  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Zoology,  &.c. 

America.  Howison's  Sketches  of  Upper  Canada. — Stewart's 
Three  Years  in  America.  Ty tier's  View  of  the  Northern  Coasts 
of  America. — Humboldt's  Travels  in  South  America. — Duncan's 
Travels  in  the  United  Slates. — Miss  Martineau's  Society  in  A  me- 
rica. — Buckingham's  Travels  in  the  United  Sates  of  America. 
— Luccock's,    Vidal's,   Koster's,    and    Hall's  Travels  in   South 

A  merica,  &.C. Europe.  Henderson's  and  Mackenzie's  Travels 

in  Iceland. — Thomson's  Travels  in  Sweden. —Carr's  Travels  in 
Russia,  Denmark,  &c. — Pallas'  Travels  in  Russia. — Wraxall's, 
Neale's,  Coxe's,  and  Lemaistre's  Tours  through  France,  Switzer- 
land, Germany,  &c. — Burgoing's  and  Jacobs' Travels  in  Spain. — 
Bi  ydone's  Tour  in  Sicily. — Von  Buck's  Travels  in  Norway  and 
Lai:)land. — Cochrane's  Travels  in  Siberia,  &c. — Cooke's,  An- 
son's, Byron's  Perouse's,  and  Bouganville's  Voyages  round  the 
\^'orld,  &„c. — Prior's  Universal  Traveller,  one  thick  vol.  P2mo, 
closely  printed,  with  100  engravings. 

SELECT  BOOKS  ON  GEOLOGY. 

Kirwin's  Mineralogy,  and  his  Geological  Essays. — De  Luc's 
Geology,  and  his  Geological  Travels. — Parkinson's  Organic  Re- 
mains of  a  former  world,  3  vols.  4to. — The  Fossils  of  the  South 
Downs,  or  illustrations  of  the  Geology  of  Sussex,  by  G.  Mantel, 
F.  L.  S.  The  preHminary  essay  to  this  splendid  work  contains 
several  excellent  remarks  respecting  the  connexion  of  Geology 
with  Religion,  which  are  calculated  to  advance  the  interests  of 
loth. — Cuviei's  Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Earth,  with  Illustra- 
tions by  Professor  Jamieson,  4th  edition. — Playfair's  Illustrations 
of  the  Hultonian  Theory  of  the  Earth. — Transactions  of  the  Geo- 
logiral  and  Wernerian  Societies.— Dr.  P.  Smith's  Lectures  on 
Geology  as  connected  with  Revelation. — Dr.  Hitchcock's  Trea- 
tise on  Geology — his  Connexion  between  Geology  and  Natural 
Religion — and  his  connexion  between  Geology  and  the  Mo- 
saic Account  of  the  Creation. — Lyel's  Geology. — Buckland  and 
Bubbage's  Bridge  water  Treatises. — Macculloch's  System  of  Geo- 
Jogy.—Hugh  Miller's  Old  Red  Sandstone. — Buckland's  Account 
of  the  discovery  of  a  Den  of  Hyenas  in  a  cavern  in  Yorkshire. — 
Buckland's  Treatise  on  Geology,  2  vols.  8vo. — Bakewell's  Intro- 
duction to  Geology. — Phillips'  Outlines  of  Mineralogy  and  Geo- 
logy, 12mo.  This  last  work  forms  a  good  introduction  to  the 
study  of  Geology,  for  those  who  are  just  commencing  their  in- 
quiries on  this  subbject.  The  object  of  this  science,  in  the  mean 
time,  should  be  confined  chiefly  to  the  collecting  of  facts,  in  refer- 


APPENDIX.  409 

ence  to  the  structure  of  the  earth  and  the  changes  it  has  under- 
gone. The  exterior  aspect  of  our  globe,  and  its  internal  recesses, 
must  be  still  more  extensively  explored,  before  any  theory  of  the 
earth  can  be  established  on  a  broad  and  solid  foundation.  It  should 
be  left  to. future  ages  to  build  a  system  with  the  materials  we  are 
now  preparing. 

POPULAR  WORKS  ON  ASTRONOMY. 

Brewster's  Ferguson's  Astronomy,  2  vols  8vo.,  with  a  vol.  of 
plates.  The  notes  and  supplementary  chapters  of  this  work,  writ- 
ten by  Sir  D.  Brewster,  contain  a  full  and  comprehensive  detail 
of  all  the  modern  discoveries  in  this  science. — Bonnycastle's  In- 
troduction to  Astronomy,  1  vol.  8vo. — La  Place's  )System  of  the 
World,  2  vols.  8vo. — Dr.  Olinthus  Gregory's  Astronomy,  1  vol. 
8vo. — Mrs.  Bryan's  System  of  Astronomy,  8vo. — Adam's  Astro- 
nomical and  Geographical  Essays,  8vo. — Phillips'  Eight  Fa- 
miliar Lectures  on  Astronomy,  12mo.— Herschel's  Astronomy. — 
Squire's  Grammar  of  Astronomy,  one  thick  vol.  18mo,  closely 
printed,  and  illustrated  with  35  plates. — Arago's  Lectures  on 
Astronomy. — The  Wonders  of  the  Heavens,  12mo.  This  work 
contains  a  popular  view  of  the  principal  facts  of  Astronomy,  and 
is  illustrated  with  50  elegant  engravings  of  a  variety  of  interest- 
ing objects  connected  with  the  scenery  of  the  heavens ;  but  its 
discussions  are  too  frequently  blended  with  the  peculiarities  of  a 
modern  physical  theory. — Martin's  Gentleman  and  Lady's  Phi- 
losophy, vol.  1. — Durham's  Astro-Theology,  and  Whiston's  Astro- 
nomical Principles  of  Religion,  8vo. — Baxter's  Matho,  2  vols. 
&c. — An  elegant  and  comprehensive  outline  of  the  leading  facts 
of  Astronomy  in  their  relation  to  revealed  religion,  will  be  found 
in  X>r.  Chalmer's  Discourses  on  the  Christian  Revelation,  viewed 
in  connexion  with  the  Modern  Astronomy,  8vo. — The  general 
reader,  in  commencing  his  study  of  this  science,  will  find  Bonny- 
castle's '"^  Introduction"  a  very  interesting  work.  It  is  written  in 
an  elegant  and  animated  style,  and  is  agreeably  interspersed  with 
a  number  of  appropriate  reflections  ;  but  is  deficient  in  the  detail 
of  modern  discoveries.  He  might  next  proceed  to  the  perusal  of 
Ferguson,  Gregory,  Squire,  &c.  La  Place's  work  contains  a 
beautiful  exposition  of  the  Newtonian  system;  but  it  is  glaringly 
deficient  in  a  reference  to  the  wisdom  and  agency  of  a  Supreme 
Intelligence.  "  An  undevout  astronomer  is  mad,"  Baxter's  Matho 
contains  a  popular  and  interesting  view  of  this  subject,  and  forms 
a  striking  contrast  to  the  apathy  of  La  Place,  who  carefully  keeps 
out  of  view  the  agency  of  the  Creator — the  main  design'of  this 
author  being  to  connect  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  with  the  attributes  of  Deity,  and  the  high  destination  of  im- 
mortal rninds.  Though  this  work  passed  through  three  editions, 
it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  appreciated  according  to  its  merits. 
As  it  has  now  become  scarce,  a  new  edition,  with  notes,  contain- 
ing a  detail  of  modern  discoveries,  might  be  an  acceptable  present 
to  the  public.     Those  who  wish  to  prosecute  this  subject  to  a 

35 


410 


CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 


greater  extent,  may  be  referred  to  Long's  Astronomy,  2  vols,  iio, 
— Robison-s  Mechanical  Philosophy,  vol.  1. — Dr.  Pearson's  In- 
troduction to  Practical  Astronomy,  comprising  descriptions  of 
Telescopes,  Equatorials,  (Quadrants,  and  other  astronomical  instru- 
ments, 2  large  vols.  4to.,  with  numerous  engravings  of  instru- 
ments.— Vince's  complete  System  of  Astronomy,  3  vols.  4to. — 
La  Lande  Astronomie,  3  vols.  4to — and  Blot's  Traite  Elementaire 
d'Astronomie  Physique.  A  comprehensive  work  on  D&scriplwe 
Astronomy,  detailing,  in  a  popular  manner,  all  the  facts  which 
have  been  ascertained  respecting  the  scenery  of  the  heavens, 
accompanied  with  a  variety  of  striking  delineations,  and  inter- 
spersed with  appropriate  moral  reflections,  accommodated  to  the 
general  reader,  is  a  desideratum,  which  we  trust  will  be  in  some 
measure  supplied  by  the  two  volumes  we  lately  pubhshed,  enti- 
tled, "■  Celestial  Scenery,'^  and  the  "  Sidereal  Heavens,"  which 
have  already  passed  through  several  editions,  and  have  been  repub- 
lished in  different  parts  of  America. 

SELECT  BOOKS  ON  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

Hauy's  Elementary  Treatise  on  Natural  Philosophy,  translated 
by  Dr.  O.  Gregory,  2  vols.  8vo.  This  translation  contains  a  num- 
ber of  valuable  notes  by  the  translator — Ferguson's  Lectures  on 
select  subjects  in  Mechanics,  &c.  by  Sir  D.  Brewster,  2  vols.  8vo, 
%vith  a  vol.  of  plates.  The  Appendix  to  this  work,  by  Sir  D. 
Brewster,  contains  a  mass  of  valuable  information  on  Mechanics, 
Hydraulics,  Dialing,  and  the  construction  of  Optical  Instrumejits; 
besides  a  variety  of  illustrative  notes  interspersed  through  the 
work,  v/hich  comprises  a  detailed  account  of  the  recent  discoveries 
in  Experimental  Philosophy. — Nicholson's  Introduction  to  Na- 
tural Philosophy,  2  vols.  8vo. — Cavallo's  Complete  Treatise  on 
Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy, 4  vols.  Svo. — Martin's  Phi- 
losophia  Britannica,  3  vols.  Svo.;  his  Gentleman  and  Lady's  Phi- 
losophy, 3  vols.  Svo.;  and  his  Philosophical  Grammar,  1  vol.  Svo. 
— Herschel's  Preliminary  Discourses  on  the  Study  of  Natural 
Philosophy. — Lardner's  Hydrostatics,  Mechanics,  and  Pneuma- 
tics.— Professor  duetelet's  Facts,  Laws,  and  Phenomena  of  Natu- 
ral Philosophy. — Partington's  Manual  of  Natural  and  Experi- 
mental Philosophy,  2  vols.  Svo. — Sir  D.  Brewster's  Treatise  on 
Optics. — Sm.ith's  Complete  System  of  Optics,  2  vols.  4lo,  with 
93  plates,  containing  941  figures,  1738. — Arnot's  Elements,  2 
vols.  Svo. — Gregory's  Economy  of  Nature,  3  vols.  8vo.;  and  his 
Lectures  on  Experimental  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  and  Chemis- 
try, 2  vols.  ]2mo. — Joyce's  Letters  on  Experimental  Philosophy, 
2  vols.  12mo;  and  his  Scientific  Dialogues,  ISmo. — Adam's  Lec- 
tures on  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy,  4  vols.  Svo.,  with 
a  vol.  of  plates. — Young's  Lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy,  2 
vols.  Svo. — Walker's  System  of  familiar  Philosophy,  4to.,  in  12 
lectures,  with  47  4to.  engravings. — Conversations  on  Natural  Phi- 
losophy, by  the  author  of  Conversations  on  Chemistry,  one  thick 
Tol.  12mo.,  with  23  engravings. — Blair's  Grammar  of  Natural 


APPENDIX.  411 

and  Experimental  Philosophy,  especially  the  late  editions,  con- 
tains (at  a  small  price)  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  principal  de- 
partments of  Philosophy,  including  Astronomy,  Geology,  Che- 
mistry, Meteorology,  &c. — Euler's  Letters  to  a  German  Princess, 
2  vols.  8vo.,  contains  a  popular  view  of  the  most  interesting  sub- 
jects connected  with  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy, 
Logic,  and  Ethics.  This  work  is  distinguished  by  a  vein  of  dig- 
nified and  scriptural  piety,  which  runs  through  every  part  of  it. 
Euler  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  philosophers  and  mathe- 
maticians of  his  day.  He  died  in  1783,  at  the  age  of  11 .  An 
edition  of  this  work,  containing  notes  hj  Sir  D.  Brewster,  has  been 
published.  These  notes  are  excellent,  so  far  as  they  extend  ;  but 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  are  so  sparingly  distributed,  and  that 
the  passages  suppressed  by  M.  Condorcet  and  De  le  Croix,  which 
were  restored  by  Dr.  Hunter,  who  translated  the  work,  and  the 
notes  of  the  French  and  English  editors,  are  for  the  most  part 
discarded.  As  a  work  of  general  information  in  relation  to  the 
physical  sciences  and  other  useful  departments  of  knowledge. 
Chambers'  Information  for  the  People  may  be  recommended  to 
common  readers,  as  a  very  useful  and  comprehensive  compend 
of  Science,  History,  civil  and  natural.  Geography,  Vegetable  and 
Animal  Physiology,  Chemistry,  Electricity,  Magnetism,  &c.  It 
is  the  cheapest  book  that  hfs  hitherto  been  published,  when  we 
consider  the  quantity  of  letter-press,  and  the  vast  mass  of  inform- 
ation it  contains. 

Notwithstanding  the  numerous  excellent  treatises  which  are  to 
be  found  on  this  subject,  a  comprehensive  work  on  experimental 
Philosophy,  blended  with  sketches  of  those  parts  of  natural  his- 
tory which  are  connected  with  it,  and  enlivened  with  appropriate 
reflections  on  the  peculiar  agencies  of  Deity,  which  appear  in  the 
various  processes  of  nature — is  still  wanting  to  interest  the  gene- 
ral reader,  and  to  attract  his  attention  to  this  department  of  know- 
ledge. Were  philosophers,  in  their  discussions  of  natural  science, 
more  frequently  to  advert  to  the  agency  of  the  Deity,  and  to  point 
out  the  religious  and  philanthropic  purposes  to  which  modern 
discoveries  might  be  applied,  they  might  be  the  means  of  promot- 
ing, at  ihe  same  time,  the  interests  both  of  science  and  religion ; 
by  alluring  general  readers  to  direct  their  attention  to  such  ob- 
jects, and  by  removing  those  groundless  prejudices  which  a  great 
proportion  of  the  Christian  world  still  entertain  against  philoso- 
phical studies.  About  the  period  when  Boyle,  Ray,  Derham, 
Nieuwentyt,  Whiston,  Addison,  the  Abbe  Pluche,  and  other 
Christian  philosophers  flourished,  more  attention  seems  to  have 
been  paid  to  this  object  than  at  present.  Since  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  the  piety  of  philosophers  appears  to  have  been  greatly 
on  the  decline.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  is  now  beginning  to  expe- 
rience a  revival.  But  whatever  may  be  the  varying  sentiments 
and  feelings  of  mere  philosophers,  in  reference  to  the  agencies  of 
the  material  system,  "  all  the  works  of  God  invariably  speak  of 
their  Author,"  to  the  humble  and  enlightened  Christian  ;  and  if 
he  be  directed  to  contemplate  the  order  of  nature  with  an  eye  of 


412  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER. 

intelligence,  he  will  never  be  at  a  loss  to  trace  the  footsteps  and 
the  attributes  of  his  Father  and  his  God. 

SELECT  BOOKS  ON  CHEMISTRY. 

Davy's  Elements  of  Chemical  Philosophy,  8vo. — Ure's  Dic- 
tionary of  Chemistry,  on  the  basis  of  Mr.  Nicholson's,  one  large 
vol.  8vo. — Henry's  Epitome  of  Chemistry,  2  vols.  8vo. — Accum^s 
Chemistry,  2  vols.  8vo. — Thomson's  System  of  Chemistry,  4  vols. 
8vo. — TVlurray's  System  of  Chemistry,  4  vols.  8vo.,  and  Ap- 
pendix.—  Kerr's  translation  of  Lavoisier's  Elements  of  Che- 
mistry, 8vo. — Chaptal's  Chemistry  applied  to  the  Arts,  4  vols,  8vo. 
— Fourcroy's  Chemistry,  4  vols. — Accum's  Chemical  Amuse- 
ments, and  Griffin's  Chemical  Recreations,  contain  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  variety  of  interesting  chemical  facts,  and  amusing  ex- 
periments.— Gurney's  Lectures  on  the  Elements  of  Chemical 
Science,  8vo.  —  Mackenzie's  One  Thousand  Experiments  in 
Chemistry,  &c. — Mitchell's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry. — Graham's 
Chemical  Catechism. — Donovan's  Treatise  on  Chemistry,  in 
Lardner's  Cyclopedia. — Turner's  Chemistry. — Conversations  on 
Chemistry,  by  a  Lady,  2  vols.  12mo. — Joyce's  Dialogues  on  Che- 
mistry, 2  vols.  18mo. — Parke's  Rudiments  of  Chemistry,  18mo; 
and  his  Chemical  Catechism,  8vo.  The  four  works  last  mentioned 
may  be  recommended  as  popular  introductions  to  the  study  of  this 
science.  Parke's  Rudiments  and  Catechism  are  distinguished  by 
their  constant  reference  to  the  agency  of  the  Deity,  and  by  the 
anxiety  which  the  author  displays  to  fix  the  attention  of  his  readers 
on  the  evidences  of  benevolent  design  which  appear  in  the  con- 
stitution of  nature.  The  numerous  notes  appended  to  the  Che- 
mical Catechism,  embody  a  great  variety  of  interesting  facts  in 
reference  to  the  economy  of  nature,  and  the  processes  of  the  arts. 
To  this  amiable  and  intelligent  writer  I  feel  indebted  for  several 
of  the  chemical  facts  stated  in  this  volume. 

As  the  science  of  chemistry  is  making  rapid  progress  in  its  in- 
vestigations and  discoveries — the  latest  editions  of  the  works  re- 
ferred to,  and  all  others  on  the  same  subject,  are  generally  to  be 
preferred.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  almost  all  the  works 
connected  with  the  physical  sciences.  But,  with  the  exception 
of  new  discoveries,  many  of  the  works  published  twenty  or  thirty 
years  ago  are  worthy  of  being  consulted,  and  are,  in  some  re- 
spects, superior  to  more  recent  publications.  There  are  some 
works  on  different  branches  of  natural  science,  published  nearly 
a  century  ago,  which  give  more  full  and  clear  descriptions  of  cer- 
tain scientific  facts  than  are  to  be  found  in  many  of  our  modern 
publications  :  and  therefore  such  works  ought  not  to  be  considered 
as  altogether  obsolete.  It  is  of  some  importance  to  the  student  of 
science  to  be  possessed  of  several  treatises  on  the  same  subject; 
as  certain  principles  or  facts  which  may  be  vaguely  stated,  or  im- 
perfectly explained  by  one  author,  may  be  more  fully  and  clearly 
elucidated  by  another. 

THE    END. 


INDEX 


Acoustics,  general  sketch  of  its  principles,  242-243 
Acoustic  Tunnels,  how  they  might  be  constructed,  318-320 

—  Rapidity  and  intensity  oi"  the  sounds  they  transmit,  316 

—  Practical  purposes  to  which  they  may  be  applied,  317 
Africa,  its  characteristic  features,  dimensions,  and  population,  156 
Air,  dangers  arising  from  its  contamination,  &c.,  74 

—  Proofs  of  its  compressibihty  and  elasticity,  242,  386 

—  Essential  to  sound,  animal  life,  &c.,  72,  242 

—  Its  pressure  demonstrated  by  experiments,  386 

Air  Balloons,  purposes  to  which  they  might  be  applied,  309-311 

—  Late  improvements  in  their  construction,  &c.,  312 

—  Plan  for  exploring  Africa,  &c.,  by  means  of  them,  312 

—  Principle  of  their  construction,  313 

America,  its  divisions,  rivers,  mountains,  and  inhabitants,  156 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,  summary  of,  279,  286 

—  Their  connexion  with  the  objects  of  religion,  286,  290 
Animal  Kingdom,  variety  in  the,  80 

■ —  Number  of  ideas  included  in  its  arrangements,  84 
Animals,  their  different  classes,  numbers,  &c,,  125,  368 
Antiquity  of  the  materials  of  our  globe,  186 

—  Displays  the  perfection  of  Deity  in  a  new  light,  192 
Aqueducts,  how  they  are  now  superseded,  238 

Art,  inventions  of,  their  relation  to  religion,  331 

—  Are  under  the  direction  of  the  Divine  Being,  328 

—  Are  preparing  the  way  for  the  millennial  era,  258,  329,  331 

—  Are  worthy  of  the  attention  of  Christians,  331 
Asia,  its  divisions,  productions,  and  population,  155 
Astronomy,  corroborative  of  geological  lacfs,  194-195 
■ —  Grandeur  of  its  objects,  198 

—  Description  of  the  leading  facts  connected  wuh  it,  198,  231 

—  Moral  and  religious  tendencies  of  this  science,  233-236 
Atmosphere,  its  height,  pressure,  and  utility,  72-73 

■ —  Its  composition,  73 — its  refractive  and  reflective  powers,  76 

—  Is  the  vehicle  of  smells,  sounds,  &c.,  75,  242 

—  Necessary  for  the  support  of  animal  life,  72,  75 

—  Effects  which  would  follow  were  its  constitution  materially  ahered, 

73-76 

—  Its  diversified  aspects,  83 

—  Its  various  properties,  240 

—  Its  constitution  illustrative  of  the  general  conflagration,  348-350 

—  Its  pressure  proved  by  experiments,  386 

Australasia,  or  New  Holland,  description  of  its  colonies,  158,  161 
Banian  Tree,  its  grandeur  and  peculiarities,  127 
Basalt,  its  colour  and  composhion,  180 — BasaUie  columns,  180 
Beauty  of  Nature,  67,  69,  88 

"  Beginning"  of  creation,  no  precise  period  specified,  190 
Benevolence  of  the  Deity,   displayed  in  the  general  arrangements  of 
nature,  113 

—  Manifested  to  a  guilty  race  of  men,  115 

—  Displayed  towards  tlie  inferior  animals,  117 

—  Is  blended  with  indications  of  his  displeasure,  344 

35*  413 


414  INDEX. 

Bessel,  his  discovery  of  the  parallax  of  the  star  61  Cygfii,  228 
Biot's  experiments  on  the  transmission  of  sound,  316 
Birds,  pecuHar  mechanism  of  their  eyes,  104 
Body,  Human,  its  different  parts,  279 

—  Its  system  of  bones,  cartilages,  &c.,  described,  280 

—  Its  rnuscular  system — extraordinary  force  of  its  muscles,  &.C.,  281 

—  Description  of  the  heart  and  blood-vessels,  282 

—  Its  wonderful  mechanism  and  functions,  286 

—  Its  voluntary  and  involuntary  motions,  288 

—  Its  power  of  self-restoration,  289 

Bones,  their  different  articulations  and  movements,  105 

—  Of  the  fingers  and  wrist,  106 

—  Description  and  delineation  of  the  humerus,  ulna,  and  radius,  106-107 

—  Of  the  head  and  vertebrae,  and  their  articulations,  108,  109 
Books,  list  of,  with  occasional  remarks,  404 

Boyle,  the  Hon.  Robert,  his  character,  382 
Burning  glasses,  their  powerful  effects,  244 
Caloric,  not  altogether  dependent  on  the  sun,  63,  207 

—  Its  sources,  effects,  and  extensive  influence,  266-268 
Camera  Obscura,  its  nature  and  effects,  245 

Cape  Haytien,  effects  produced  by  an  earthquake  at,  342 

Carbon,  its  properties  and  combinations,  271,  277,  347 

Celestial  Orbs,  summary  view  of,  126-127 

Ceres,  its  discovery,  position,  and  magnitude,  213 

"  Chambers'  Journal,"  how  printed,  295 

Changes  to  which  our  globe  has  been  subjected,  187 

Chemical  changes  of  matter,  illustrative  of  the  Resurrection,  347 

Chemistry,  its  utility  and  extensive  applications,  265 

— •  Summary  view  of  its  principles  and  objects,  266-275 

—  Its  relation  to  religious  objects,  275-278 

—  Its  brilliant  discoveries,  278 

—  Its  discoveries  carry  our  views  towards  the  Millennium,  278 
Chlorine,  its  bleaching  and  other  properties,  272 

Christian  Teachers,  deficiency  in  their  usual  instructions,  29 

—  Subjects  on  which  they  might  occasionally  expatiate,  30 
Christians,  their  duty  to  study  and  converse  about  the  works  of  God,  360 

—  Their  deficiencies  in  this  respect,  21,  361 

—  Reasons  why  many  entertain  confused  ideas  of  God,  112 

—  How  their  minds  might  be  expanded,  and  their  moral   feelings   im- 

proved, 55,  57.  381 

—  Are  directed  in  Scripture  to  study  the  Works  of  God,  235,  360 
Cloud,  electric,  dreadful  effects  produced  by  an,  342 
Coal-formations,  and  their  supposed  origin,  176 

—  Fields,  the  strata  with  which  they  are  connected,  176 
Colours,  their  utility,  and  beauty  in  the  system  of  nature,  67-69 

—  Advantages  of  the  general  colour  which  prevails  in  nature,  69 
Comets,  their  apparent  size,  tails,  orbits,  number,  &,c.,  223 

—  Of  1811,  1835,  their  motions  and  other  phenomena,  224-225 

—  Of  Encko  and  Gambart,  their  peculiarities,  225 

(Confidence  in  God  produced  by  an  expansive  view  of  his  attributes,  59,  61 
Confiagration,  general,  27 — Agents  by  which  it  may  be  produced,  349-350 
Continents  of  the  globe,  their  dimensions  and  peculiarities,  18,  144 
Creation,  process  of  the  mind  in  acquiring  the  most  expansive  view  of, 
39-41 

—  A  sensible  manifestation  of  Deity,  134 
Creations,  successive,  of  animals  and  plants,  187 
Curiosity,  principle  of,  ought  to  be  cherished,  352,  356 
Daguerreotype,  its  discovery,  nature,  and  effects,  241-248 
Dancer  of  overlooking  the  visible  displays  of  Deity,  234 
Davy,  Sir  H.,  extract  from,  265 — His  Safety  Lamp,  271 


LVDEX.  415 

Day-observations  on  the  stars  and  planets,  201 

Deity,  visible  manifestations  of,  not  to  be  overlooked,  20 

—  His  natural  perfections  the  foundation  of  religion,  24-27 

—  All  his  attributes  infinite  and  worthy  of  our  contemplation,  26 

—  Utihty  of  clear  conceptions  of  his  natural  perfections,  28 

—  Manifestations  of,  in  creation,  not  to  be  overlooked,  46 

—  His  power  displayed  in  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  47 

—  His  wisdom  particularly  illustrated,  (see  Wisdom),  61,  110 

—  His  operations  in  the  functions  of  the  eye,  93 

—  His  wise  and  beneficent  arrangements  in  the  world,  112 
— ■  His  designs,  in  some  instances,  inscrutable,  188 

—  His  influence  and  agency  in  the  inventions  of  art,  329-331 

—  Scriptural  descriptions  of  his  attributes  and  supremacy,  358 

—  His  incessant  agency  illustrated  throughout  nature,  262 

—  His  wisdom  and  goodness  in  chemical  agencies,  275 

—  Our  dependence  on  him  for  the  support  of  our  functions,  287 

—  Our  views  of,  depend  on  our  conceptions  of  his  universal  empire.  363 

—  Amplitude  of  his  empire  and  its  diversified  objects,  356-359 
Deluge,  its  causes  and  effects,  336 

Digestion,  description  of  this  process,  285 

Diving  Bell,  operations  performed  by  means  of  it,  388 

Douglas,  J.,  Esq.,  his  "  Hints  on  Missions"  recommended,  168,  280 

Earth,  its  magnitude  and  dimensions,  34-143 

—  Mode  by  which  we  may  acquire  the  most  expansive  idea  of  it,  34-36 

—  Time  it  would  take  to  traverse  its  surface,  35 

—  Variety  of  objects  connected  with  it,  35,  78-83 

—  Enormous  mass  of  materials  it  contains,  36 

—  Its  diminutiveness,  when  compared  with  the  orbs  of  heaven,  37 

—  Diurnal  motion  of,  demonstrated,  47,  208 

—  Considerations  which  prove  its  annual  revolution,  210 

—  Ancient  opinions  in  regard  to  its  figure,  138 

—  Proofs  of  us  globular  figure,  139-141 

—  Discovery  of  its  figure  an  important  fact  in  the  history  of  Providence, 

140-143. 

—  Its  diameter  forms  a  base  line  for  finding  the  distance  of  the  Moon,  &.C., 

142 

—  Its  general  divisions,  143 — Its  ranges  of  mountains,  145-146 

—  Its  dimensions  and  proportions  of  land  and  water,  143 

—  Its  oceans,  and  rivers,  147-152 

—  Number  and  classes  of  its  inhabitants,  162-163 

—  Number  it  is  capable  of  supporting,  163 

—  Majestic  objects  it  exhibits,  170 

—  Its  dry  land  gradually  increasing,  179-183 

—  Antiquity  of  its  materials,  186 

—  Successive  changes  to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  187 

—  Present  state  of,  comparatively  of  short  duration,  195 

—  All  its  physical  revolutions  display  Divine  Perfection,  197. 

—  Considered  as  a  planet,  208 

—  Its  present  state  corresponds  to  the  moral  state  of  man,  335,  336,  344 

—  Its  diversified  aspects,  352 

—  Difl^erent  rates  of  diurnal  motion  in  different  latitudes,  381 
Earthquakes,  their  phenomena  and  ravages,  341 

—  At  Lisbon,  Aleppo,  Cape  Haytien,  &c.,  341-342  ^ 
Eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  198 

Electricity,  its  phenomena  and  remarkable  effects,  247-249 
Electric  currents,  influence  of  the  earth  upon,  255-256 
Electro-Magnetism,  summary  view  of  its  facts  and  principles,  254-253 
Electro-Magnets,  their  nature  and  power,  257 
Electrotype,  its  discovery  and  practical  application,  250 
Electro- Telegraph,  Wheatstone's  improvements  in  the,  31? 


416 


INDEX. 


Electro-Telegraph,  practical  application  of  it  on  the  Great  Western  Rail- 
way, 319 

—  Rapidity  with  which  it  conveys  intelHgence,  320 
Elk,  the  Irish,  a  fossil  animal,  its  huge  dimensions,  186 
Empire  of  God,  its  amplitude  and  diversity  of  objects,  356-359 
Erromanga,  an  island  noted  for  the  murder  of  Williams,  163 
Europe,  its  dimensions,  commerce,  races,  and  population,  153-155 
Expansion  of  bodies,  its  causes,  267 

Eye,  structure  of  the  human,  89-102 

—  Description  of  its  coats  and  humours,  89 

—  Its  bones  and  muscles,  and  their  admirable  functions,  91-93 

—  Agency  of  light  in  producing  vision  in  the  eye,  93 

—  Number  of  rays  that  enter  its  pupil,  9& 

—  Smallness  of  the  images  depicted  on  its  retina,  97 

—  Power  of  adapting  itself  to  objects  at  different  distances,  100 

—  Its  power  of  contracting  and  enlarging  its  pupil,  101 

—  Summary  of  adaptations  in  the  eye,  101-102 
Eyes  of  Insects,  &c.,  their  minute  mechanism,  81 

—  Of  Birds,  Fishes,  Cats,  &c.,  peculiarity  of  construction,  104 
Fingal's  Cave,  its  dimensions,  180 

Fishes,  peculiar  structure  of  their  organs  of  vision,  104 

Folly,  in  overlooking  the  arrangements  of  Deity  in  the  material  system. 

110-112. 
Friendly  Islands,  their  climate  and  inhabitants,  162 
Galileo  condemned  for  asserting  the  motion  of  the  Earth,  138 

—  Makes  discoveries  in  the  heavens  with  the  Telescope,  301 
Galvanism,  its  nature  and  effects,  250 

—  Its  agency  on  diseases,  dead  animals,  and  in  blasting  rocks,  252 
Garnerin's  Parachute,  and  his  descent  in  it,  314 

Genesis,  i,  1,  explained  and  illustrated,  189 

—  i,  2,  Remarks  upon,  196 

Geography,  outline   of  its  leading  objects— (see   Earth,   Ocean,    &c.,) 

138-167 
' —  A  study  with  which  every  one  should  be  acquainted,  167 

—  Its  utihty  to  Directors  of  Missionary  Societies,  167 

To  every  private  Christian,  168 — Its  relation  to  Providence,  366 

—  Sublimity  of  its  objects — utihty  of  its  moral  facts,  170 
Geology,  its  object  and  connexion  with  religion,  171-172 

—  Outline  of  its  most  interesting  objects,  174-187 

—  Conclusions  deduced  from  the  facts  it  has  disclosed,  186-187 

—  Its  facts  consistent  with  Sacred  History,  187-188 

—  Its  facts  corroborated  by  the  discoveries  of  astronomy,  193 
— _  Sublime  objects  it  presents  to  view,  197 

Giant's  Causeway  in  Ireland,  180 

Globe,  Terraqueous,  (see  Earth,) 

"  Glory  of  the  Lord,"  import  of  the  expression,  137 

Granite,  its  character  and  composition,  174 

Gratitude  the  result  of  studying  our  animal  frame,  288 

Green,  Mr.,  his  aerial  voyage  to  Germany,  313 

—  His  improvements  in  aerial  navigation,  312 

Hamilton,  Rev.  R.,  his  work  on  "Missions"  recommended,  168 

Hand,  its  admirable  construction,  and  diversified  uses,  106-109 

' —  Its  conne.fion  with  the  fore-arm,  107 

Harris,  Rev.  Dr.,  his  "  Great  Commission"  characterized,  167 

Head,  the  movements  of  which  it  is  susceptible,  108 

Heat,  its  diversified  effects,  267 — Conductors  of,  268 

Heathen  nations,  deficiencies  in  their  religious  and  moral  system,  19 

Heavenly  bodies,  mode  of  finding  their  distances,  142 

Heavens,  their  boundaries  cannot  be  determined,  39 

—  Wisdom  of  God  as  displayed  in  their  arrangements,  61,  63 


INDEX. 


417 


Heavens,  their  diversified  aspect,  353 

—  Their  rate  of  motion,  were  the  earth  at  rest,  47,  385 
Herschel,  the  Planet,  its  size,  revolution,  hght,  satelhtes,  &c.,  222 

—  May  enjoy  as  great  a  brilUancy  of  Hght  as  the  earth,  222 

Herschel,  Sir  W.,  observations  by,  38,  211— Powers  of  his  telescopes,  302 
Hill,  Sir  J.,  his  description  of  a  flower  and  Us  inhabitants,  131 
History,  Sacred  and  Civil,  ancient  and  modern,  289 

—  Moral  instructions  deducible  from  it,  291 
Hope  of  a  resurrection,  59,  348 

Human  beings,  variety  among,  and  its  utility,  185 
Humility  promoted  by  the  study  of  nature,  52,  381 

—  A  distinguishing  feature  in  celestial  inteUigences,  54,  383 
Hydrogen,  its  nature,  specific  gravity,  &c.,  270 

—  Number  of  lives  destroyed  by  its  explosions,  in  40  years,  270 
Hydrostatical  Paradox,  240 

Hydrostatics,  description  of  its  leading  principles,  238-241 
Ignorance,  its  effects  and  baneful  consequences,  374-376 

—  Contrasted  with  the  views  of  an  enlightened  mind,  377-380 
Immense  spaces^of  the  universe,  44 

Immensity  of  the  creation  illustrated,  55-57 

—  An  impression  of  it  leads  to  humility,  54 

Inhabitants  of  the  globe,  their  number  and  classification,  164 

—  Number  at  the  resurrection,  165 

—  Number  which  the  earth  is  capable  of  supporting,  165 
Insect-hfe,  felichy  of,  131-133 

Insects,  wonderful  construction  of  their  eyes,  81 

—  Transformations  of,  illustrate  the  resurrection,  346 
Intelhgence,  rapidity  with  which  it  may  be  transmitted,  317,  320,  326 
Iodine,  its  discovery  and  properties,  272 

Java,  eruption  of  a  volcano  in,  340 

Job,  book  of,  its  references  to  the  works  of  creation,  136,  137 

Juno,  the  planet,  its  distance,  diameter,  «fec.,  213 

Jupiter,  size,  distance,  and  revolution  of  this  planet,  215 

—  Its  belts,  and  their  diversified  phenomena,  216 

—  Revolutions  and  appearances  of  its  satellites,  216 
Lens,  convex,  images  formed  by,  94,  245 

Liberia,  characteristics  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  colony,  156 
Light,  its  motion  and  extreme  minuteness,  93 

—  Its  adaptation  to  the  eye,  94 

—  Its  agency  in  producing  vision,  94-98 

—  Immense  multitude  ofrays  reflected  from  all  objects,  96-97 

—  What  proportion  of  the  solar  light  falls  on  our  globe,  98 

—  Its  properties  when  refracted  and  reflected,  243 

Lightning,  its  cause,  243.     Its  destructive  effects  counteracted,  259 

Lisbon,  effects  produced  by  an  earthquake  in,  341 

Locomotive  engines,  (see  Railroads  and  Appendix.) 

Lunardi's  ascent  in  a  balloon,  314 

Macfarlane,  Rev.  J.,  his  "  Jubilee  of  the  World"  characterized,  168 

Magnetism,  its  properties  and  phenomena  described,  253 

Magnificent  scenes  in  minute  objects,  132 

Malthus,  remarks  on  the  opinions  of  his  followers,  166 

Mammoth,  a  fossil  animal,  its  dimensions,  184 

Mariner's  Compass,  its  invention,  and  what  led  to  it,  299 

—  Vast  utility  of  this  invention,  299 

—  A  subordinate  mean  of  accomplishing  the  designs  of  Providence,  300 
Man,  his  depravity  illustrated  from  the  system  of  nature,  334-345 

—  His  apathy  and  neglect  of  the  wonders  of  creation,  263 
Marquesas — characteristics  of  their  inhabitants,  162 

Mars,  its  magnhude,  distance,  spots,  and  other  phenomena,  212 
Mastodon,  185 


418  INDEX. 

Matter,  indestructibility  of,  277 

Mechanics,  general  objects  of  this  branch  of  philosophy,  236 

—  Its  importance  to  the  improvement  of  nature  and  society,  237 
Megatherium,  its  dimensions,  185 

Mercy  an  attribute  of  God,  deducible  from  nature,  116,  3-44,  345 

Mercury,  its  size,  position,  and  quantity  of  light,  206 

Meteoric  stones,  their  characteristics  and  supposed  origin,  214 

Microscope,  discoveries  made  by  means  of  it,  304 

Milky  Way,  number  of  stars  in  it,  230 

Millennial  era,  improvements  preparatory  to  and  during  its  continuance, 

252,  329,  331 
Mineral  kingdom,  substances  connected  with  it,  124 
Minerals,  variety  of,  82 
Miracles,  real  and  pretended,  260 
Moon,  its  distance,  how  ascertained,  142 

—  Its  apparent  motions,  phases,  and  echpses,  199 

—  Its  magnitude  and  period  of  revolution,  210 

—  Description  of  its  mountain  scenery,  211 

—  Whether  it  have  seas,  rivers,  or  volcanoes,  211 

—  Illuminating  power  of  its  rays,  211 

—  Presents  always  the  same  side  to  the  earth,  212 

—  Is  probably  inhabited,  212 

—  How  its  inhabitability  may  be  ascertained,  390 

—  Remarks  on  a  supposed  fortification  in  the  moon,  391 

Moral  impressions  produced  by  the  grandeur  of  nature,  52,  55,  59 
Mount  Meisner,  and  Mount  Jura,  geological  facts  respecting,  182 
Mountaijis,  smallness  of,  when  compared  with  the  earth,  34 

—  Extent  of  the  larger  mountain  chains,  145 

—  Volcanic  mountains,  146,  337,  338 

■ —  Magnificence  and  subhmity  of  mountain  scenery,  146 

• —  Their  use  in  the  system  of  nature,  67 

' —  I-iunar,  their  form,  pecuharity,  and  elevation,  211 

Muscles  of  the  eye,  their  construction  and  use,  91-92 

Natural  evils,  their  causes  and  origin,  88,  336,  344 

Natural  History,  comprehensive  view  of  its  objects,  123-127 

—  Objects  connected  with  the  structure  of  the  globe,  123 

—  Particulars  in  reference  to  vegetable,  mineral,  and  animal  tribes,  124-125 

—  Facts  in  relation  to  the  celestial  orbs,  127 

—  Illustration  of  some  of  its  subjects,  127-133 

—  Its  rehgious  tendency,  134 
Natural  Philosophy.     See  Philosophy. 
Nature,  study  of,  connected  with  religion,  20 

—  Is  the  study  of  the  Creator,  135 
• —  Ennobles  the  human  soul,  135 

Navigation  its  difficulties  before  the  invention  of  the  compass,  298 

Navigator's  Islands,  their  characteristics,  162 

Nebulae,  their  number  and  different  classes,  231 

New  Guinea,  New  Britain,  &c.,  their  climate,  &c.,  160 

New  Hebrides,  their  situation  and  first  discovery,  163 

New  South  Wales,  its  dimensions  and  population,  159 

New  Zealand,  its  position,  climate,  and  colonisatian,  159-161 

Nitrogen,  its  properties,  269 

Nitrous  oxide,  its  singular  eflTects,  269 

Noel,  the  Hon.  B.,  his  "  Christian  Missions"  characterized,  268 

Novelty,  principle  of,  its  utility  in  religious  instruction,  352-354 

Ocean,  its  divisions,  depth — quantity  of  water  it  contains,  147-148 

—  Its  bottom,  colours,  and  motions,  248-249 
Omnipotence  of  God,  a  ground  of  Christian  confidence,  27,  28 

—  Illustrations  of,  in  Sacred  History,  32 

—  Displayed  in  the  quantity  of  matter  in  the  universe,  33-41 


INDEX, 


419 


Omnipotence  of  God  displayed  in  the  rapid  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
41-44 

In  the  immense  spaces  of  the  universe,  44,  45 

Optics,  summary  of  its  principles  and  discoveries,  243 
Organic  remains,  175,  177,  178,  184 

—  General  remarks  in  reference  to,  181 

—  Of  human  beings,  where  found,  179,  182,  184 

—  Periods  of  their  formation,  184 

—  Were  not  created  as  we  now  find  them,  192 
Orion,  the  constellation,  delineation  of,  229 

Oxygen,  its  properties  and  uses  in  the  system  of  nature,  268 

Pallas,  its  revolution,  nebuloshy,  and  magnitude,  213 

Parachute,  description  of  the,  315 

Parallax  of  the  moon,  142— of  61  Cygni,  228 

Paris,  formation  on  which  it  rests — its  fossil  remains,  178 

Perspiration,  hs  quantity — effects  of  its  obstruction,  285 

Philosophy,  Natural,  its  leading  objects,  236 

—  Outline  of  its  different  branches,  236-257 

—  Its  relation  to  the  objects  of  religion  illustrated,  257-264 
Phosphorescent  animals,  275 

Phosphorus,  its  properties  and  the  effects  it  produces,  274 

Photographic  etchings  and  portraits,  248 

Physical  evils  connected  with  moral,  343,  344 

Pierre's  description  of  the  flowers  of  thyme,  132 

Piety  promoted  by  the  study  of  nature,  51,  55,  58,  133,  135 

Planetary  system,  amplitude  of  its  scale,  44,  45 

Planets,  their  dimensions,  quantity  of  matter,  &c.,  37 

—  Their  rapid  motions,  41,  42 

—  Immense  forces  with  which  they  are  impelled,  42 

—  Their  apparent  motions,  213 

—  How  they  are  distinguished  from  the  fijced  stars.  Note,  224 

—  New,  their  phenomena  and  pecuharities,  213 

—  Their  supposed  origin  and  remarkable  anomahes,  214,  215 

—  Probability  of  other  planets  belonging  to  our  system,  222 
Pneumatics,  facts  which  this  science  has  investigated,  240,  242 

—  Experiments  in  relation  to  this  subject,  386-388 

Po,  the  river,  quantity  of  water  it  supplies  to  the  ocean,  151 
Pole-star — Ursa  Major  and  Ursa  Minor  described,  200 
Polynesia,  characteristics  of  its  numerous  islands,  160-162 
Prayer,  how  it  may  be  directed  by  geographical  considerations,  168 
Pride,  its  immoraUty,  folly,  and  inconsistency,  52,  55 

—  Its  opposition  to  the  dictates  of  Revelation,  54 
Printing,  its  invention  and  extensive  utihty,  294-297 

—  Persecution  of  its  first  improvers,  295 

—  Stereotype,  and  steam-printing,  295,  296 

—  Account  of  its  first  inventor,  396 

Progressive  improvement  a  law  of  the  moral  world,  194 
Prospect  of  perpetual  improvement  in  the  future  world,  60 
Providence,  distorted  views  respecting,  377 — its  extensive  range,  365-373 
Bailways,  their  origin  and  progress,  321 

—  Mode  in  which  they  are  constructed,  locomotives,  &c.,  322 

—  Expenses,  &c.  of;  with  their  arrangements,  323 

—  English,  their  number,  length,  &c.,  323— Scotch  Railways,  324 

—  Velocity  of  trains,  325— Safety  of  such  conveyances,  325 

—  Their  utility  in  a  civil  and  Christian  point  of  view,  325-326 
Reason  not  to  be  discarded  from  rehgiqn,  19 
Redemption,  work  of,  remarks  respecting,  378,  402 
Reflections  on  the  immensity  of  creation,  39-41,  222 

—  On  the  immense  velocity  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  43 

—  On  the  vast  spaces  which  surround  them,  45 


420  *  INDEX. 

Reflections  on  the  wonders  of  vision,  97,  98,  100,  103,  104 

—  On  the  objects  connected  with  geology,  197 

—  On  the  aspects  and  motions  of  the  nocturnal  heavens,  302 

—  On  comets  and  the  paths  they  traverse,  224 

—  On  the  religious  tendency  of  the  objects  of  astronomy,  233 

—  On  the  transmission  of  intelligence  by  electricity,  320 

—  On  the  discoveries  made  by  tlie  telescope  and  microscope,  302,  305 

—  On  the  millenial  era,  329-331 

—  On  the  supremacy  of  God  and  his  universal  empire,  359,  360 
Religion  of  nature  connected  with  Revelation,  25 
Respiration,  description  of  this  process,  283 

Resurrection  of  the  body — grounds  of  hope  in  relation  to  it,  27,  59 

—  Illustrated  from  facts  in  the  system  of  nature,  345-347 

—  Denied  by  the  ancient  philosophers,  345 

—  Illustration  from  the  chemical  changes  of  matter,  347-348 
Revelation,  necessity  of,  18,  19 

—  In  harmony  with  the  system  of  nature,  233,  193 

—  Refers  to  the  operations  of  the  material  system,  21 

—  Some  of  the  grand  objects  of,  21,  22 

—  Consistent  with  the  facts  of  geology,  182-191 

—  Variety  of  subjects  it  embraces,  353-355 

—  Its  descriptions  of  the  grandeur  of  the  Divine  empire,  358 
Reverence  of  God  promoted  by  the  contemplation  of  nature,  55,  59 

—  Means  by  which  it  may  be  cherished,  55,  58 
Ridgely,  Dr.,  his  illustration  of  the  power  of  God,  48 
Rivers,  their  number,  variety,  and  extent,  150 

—  Quantity  of  water  they  pour  into  the  ocean,  151 

—  Sources  whence  they  are  supplied,  152 

—  Purposes  they  serve  in  the  economy  of  nature,  152 
Rocks,  Primary,  their  structure  and  composition,  174 

—  Transition,  their  varieties  and  organic  remains,  174-176 

—  Secondary,  position,  strata,  and  fossil  remains,  176-177 

—  Tertiary,  abound  with  vegetable  and  animal  remains,  177 

—  Alluvial  and  diluvial  formations,  178-179 

—  Volcanic  and  basaltic,  179-180 

—  General  remarks  on  their  organic  remains,  181 

—  Processes  by  which  they  have  been  formed,  182 
Rosse,  Earl  of,  dimensions  of  his  large  speculum,  303 
Rotation  of  the  earth  and  planets,  reason  why  it  exists,  63,  64 
Sacred  writers,  objects  to  which  they  direct  our  attention,  31,  51,  58 
Sandwich  Islands,  progress  of  the  natives  in  Christianity,  162 

—  Terrific  volcano  {Kirauea)  in  one  of  these  islands,  338-340    . 
Saturn,  subhmity  of  the  motions  of  its  rings  and  satellites,  42 

—  Its  motions,  belts,  satellites,  quantity  of  light,  &,c.,  218 

—  Dimensions  of  its  rings,  and  diversified  phenomena,  219-220 

—  Subhmity  of  the  objects  in  its  firmament,  220 

—  Supposed  division  of  the  outer  ring,  Note,  220 
Sciences,  their  connexion  and  dependence  on  each  other,  292 

—  Should  be  studied  by  Christians,  111,  113,  136,  235,  293 
Scripture,  dignity  and  sublimity  of  its  language,  358-360 
Scriptural  Interpretation,  rules  for,  232 

—  Illustration  of  these  rules,  233-235 

Scriptural  facts  illustrated  from  the  system  of  nature,  232-351 
Sensation,  and  the  nerves  by  which  it  is  produced,  285 
Silliman,  Professor,  extract  from,  on  organic  remains,  192 
Society  Islands,  progress  of,  in  religion  and  the  arts,  161 
Solar  system,  description  of  the  bodies  it  contains,  213,  225 

—  Its  smallness  when  compared  with  the  universe,  227 

—  Variety  in  the  bodies  it  contains,  352 
Sound,  its  vibrations  and  reflections,  242 


INDEX.  421 

Sound,  conductors  of,  315 

—  Its  velocity,  intensity,  «fec.,  242,  243 

—  Experiments  on  its  quick  transmission,  315-317 

South  Australia,  characteristics  of  this  interesting  colony,  159 

Spaniards,  their  cruelties  to  the  American  aborigines,  311 

Specific  gravity,  240 

Springs,  intermitting,  explanation  of,  239 

Siaffa,  a  basaltic  island,  its  size,  &c.,  180 

Starry  systems,  230 

Stars,  their  distance,  number,  and  magnitude,  37,  38,  228 

—  Proof  of  their  distance  and  luminosity,  228 

—  The  constellations  into  which  they  have  been  arranged,  229 

—  Their  apparent  magnitudes,  230 

—  Double  and  treble  stars,  their  revolutions,  &c.,  232 

—  Changes  which  have  taken  place  among  them,  231-232 
• —  Are  suns  giving  light  to  other  systems,  37,  64,  230,  232 

—  Their  rate  of  motion,  supposing  the  earth  at  rest,  47,  385 

—  Their  apparent  motion,  199 

—  Deductions  in  relation  to  their  apparent  aspects,  201 

—  Never  vary  their  relative  positions,  202 

Steam  Navigation,  its  utihty  and  late  improvements,  306 

—  Voyages  by  steam  across  the  Atlantic,  &c.,  307 

—  Its  utility  in  Missionary  enterprises,  308 

—  Sketches  and  recent  facts  in  reference  to,  (Note  xi,  App.),  399 
Sulphur,  its  properties,  combinations,  and  uses,  273 

Sun,  its  size  and  extensive  influence,  37,  203,  206 

—  Its  amphtude  illustrated,  213,  214 

—  Vast  extent  of  its  internal  parts,  204 

"—  Its  rotation,  spots,  atmosphere,  and  rays,  205-206 

—  How  much  larger  than  the  earth  and  all  the  planets,  37 

—  What  proportion  of  its  rays  fall  upon  the  earth,  199 

—  Its  rate  of  motion,  supposing  the  earth  at  rest,  47,  385 

—  Its  apparent  diurnal  and  annual  motion,  198 

—  Probability  of  its  real  motion  through  space,  226 
Siphon,  its  action  described,  239 

Systematic  theologians,  their  abstract  disquisitions,  49 
Tapir,  a  fossil  animal,  180 

Telegraph,  Electric,  mode  of  its  operation,  319-321 
Telescope,  its  powers  for  observing  stars  in  the  day-time,  201 

—  Circumstances  which  led  to  its  invention,  301 

—  Discoveries  which  have  been  made  by  means  of  it,  302 

—  Serves  as  a  celestial  vehicle,  303 

—  Herschel's  telescopes,  their  powers,  &c.,  303 

—  Earl  of  Rosse's  enormous  speculum  for  a  telescope,  304 

—  The  different  principles  on  which  they  are  constructed,  396 

—  New  Reflector,  or  Aerial  Telescope,  by  the  author,  (Appen.) 
Theology,  its  extensive  bearings  and  references,  120 

—  Has  been  sometimes  set  in  opposition  to  philosophy,  121 
Thunder,  hs  cause,  249 — how  its  distance  may  be  estimated,  243 
Thunder-storms,  appalling  eflfects  of,  342 

—  May  be  modified  and  counteracted,  259 
Tides,  spring  and  neap,  their  causes,  149 
Tomboro,  eruptions  from,  and  their  terrible  effects,  340 
Trap  rocks,  180 

Twilight,  its  cause  and  utility,  76 

Uranus,  the  planet,   (see  Herschel.) 

United  States,  their  capabilities,  and  literary  institutions,  157 

Universe,  immense  quantity  of  matter  in  the,  33-41 

—  Intended  to  adumbrate  the  perfections  of  Deity,  50-51 
Van  Dieman's  Land,  its  situation  and  population,  159 

36 


422  INDEX. 

Variety  of  Nature — on  the  general  surface  of  the  globe,  78 

—  In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  78,  80 

—  In  the  anunal  kingdom,  80,  81 

—  In  the  eyes  of  beetles,  flies,  silk-worms,  &,c.,  81 

—  In  the  subterraneous  regions  of  the  globe,  82 

—  In  the  atmosphere,  83 

—  Final  ends  accomplished  by  this  variety,  83 

—  In  the  structure  of  our  globe,  352 

—  In  the  planetary  system  and  among  the  stars,  353 
Variety  of  Topics  connected  with  rehgion,  352-356 

—  In  the  Revelations  of  God,  354-355 

—  Practical  purposes  to  which  the  principle  of  variety  may  be  applied,  35f 
Vegetable  beds  formed  by  a  decomposition  of  rocks,  183 

Vegetable  kingdom,  variety  in  the,  78-79 

—  Its  adaptation  to  the  structure  and  constitution  of  animals,  80 
Vegetable  tribes,  circumstances  connected  with  them,  124 
Ve?ius  seen  near  the  sun  in  the  day-time,  202,  207 

—  Its  size,  phases,  mountains,  brilliancy,  &c.,  207 

—  Observations  on,  by  the  author,  202,  203,  207,  208 

Vesta,  the  planet,  its  distance,  pecuharity  of  its  light,  &c.,  214 
Vesuvius,  its  eruptions  and  appalling  phenomena,  337 
Vision,  manner  in  which  it  is  performed,  95-97 

—  Illustrated  by  a  figure  and  experiment,  95 

—  Numerous  circumstances  on  which  it  depends,  95-98 

—  Limits  of  distinct  vision,  as  to  near  objects,  101 
Volcanoes,  their  phenomena  and  effects,  146,  337,  340 

—  In  the  Sandwich  Isles,  their  terrific  phenomena,  338-340 

—  Dreadful  ravages  they  produce,  340 

—  Number  of,  on  the  globe,  840 

—  Are  indications  of  the  sin  of  Man,  340-342 
Water-^its  utiUty  and  manifold  advantages,  69-71 

—  Its  density,  composition,  motion,  and  other  properties,  71-72 

—  Its  expansion  in  the  act  of  freezing,  17 

—  Quantity  of,  carried  into  the  ocean  by  rivers,  151 
Whispers,  at  what  distance  they  may  be  heard,  316-318 

—  How  they  may  be  conveyed  and  augmented,  315-317 
Williams  the  Missionary,  his  writings,  character,  and  death,  163 
Wisdom  defined,  61 

Wisdom  of  the  Deity,  manifested  in  the  heavens,  61,  63 

—  In  the  rotation  of  the  earth  and  planets,  63-64 

—  In  the  distances  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  62 

—  Cannot  be  particularly  traced  among  the  celestial  orbs,  65-66 

—  Displayed  in  the  solid  parts  of  our  globe,  66 

—  In  its  mountains  and  diversity  of  surface,  67 

—  In  the  colouring  spread  over  the  face  of  nature,  67-69 

—  In  the  constitution  of  water  and  its  uses,  69-72 

—  In  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  atmosphere,  72-77 

—  In  the  variety  of  nature  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral  king 

doms,  78-88 

—  In  the  mechanism  of  the  bones,  106-109 

—  In  the  general  contrivances  connected  with  our  animal  frame,  118 
Witchcraft,  and  the  number  of  its  victims,  261 

Works  of  God,  beneficial  effects  resulting  from  their  study,  23-24 

—  Discoveries  in  the,  ought  to  be  appreciated  by  Christians,  25 

—  How  they  should  be  studied,  137 

—  Utility  of  expansive  views  of  the,  377-380 

Worlds,  plurality  of,  deduced  from  reason  and  Scripture,  226-227 

—  Outline  of  arguments  in  support  of  this  position,  393 


;{M;UHiiilHHIIi 


